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\V 

JAPAN  AND  KOREA 

All  Protestant  Mission  Stations  in  Japan, 

Korea,  and  Formosa  are  included. 

COMPILED  BY  S.  W.  BOGGS 

Scale  1:10,000,000 

•Statute  Miles 
100 


0  50 

I  - L. 


COPYRIGHT  1923  BY  THE  MISSIONARY  EDUCATION  MOVEMENT  OF  THE  U  S.  AND  CAN A0 A 


2,5, 

LIBRARY  OF  THE  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 


PRINCETON.  N.  J. 


Purchased  by  the  Hamill  Missionary  Fund. 


DS  821  . F5  1923 
Fisher,  Galen  Merriam,  1873 
1955. 

Creative  forces  in  Japan 


;  1 — Jap. 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  RURAL  JAPAN.  MT.  ASAMA,  A  LIVING  VOLCANO,  IN 

THE  BACKGROUND 


i 


I 


/.V  k  ’ 

'  v  , 

&  MOV  )' 

\  /'  ■  ^  -,y  - 

Creative  Forces 
in  Japan 

/ 

/ 

Galen  M.  Fisher 


Missionary  Education  Movement  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada 

New  York 
and 

The  Central  Committee  on  the  United 
Study  of  Foreign  Missions 

West  Medford,  Mass. 


Copyright,  1923,  by  the 
Missionary  Education  Movement  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


This  book,  unworthy  though  it  be,  is  reverently 
dedicated  to  the  memory  of  three  great  Jap¬ 
anese  personalities,  each  of  whom  enriched 
my  own  life,  as  well  as  rendered  distinguished 
service  to  the  Kingdom  of  God  in  Japan. 

To  Doctor  Niisima  Jo,  known  to  history  as  a 
dauntless  pioneer  in  both  education  and  evan¬ 
gelism,  but  to  me  his  name  recalls  the  shy 
stranger  who  stayed  at  our  home  when  I  was 
a  lad  and  left  on  my  mind  an  indelible  impres¬ 
sion  of  a  soul  yearning  for  the  redemption  of 
his  own  people. 

To  Bishop  Honda  Yoitsu,  a  great  shepherd  of 
souls,  a  wise  master-builder,  and  to  me  a 
spiritual  father  during  my  inexperienced 
years  in  Japan. 

Id  the  Honorable  Ebara  Soroku,  eminent  as 
an  educator,  a  publicist,  and  an  international¬ 
ist,  but  humble  withal,  and  always  accessible 
to  disciples  like  myself  who  sought  his 
counsel  and  aid. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Foreword . vi 

I.  Assets  and  Liabilities  of  the  Japanese 

People  .  i 

II.  Militarism,  Reaction,  and  Liberalism  31 

III.  Social  Problems  and  Christian  Solu¬ 

tions  . 66 

IV.  Religious  Resources  and  Problems.  .  107 

V.  Epochs  and  Achievements  of  the 

Christian  Movement . 142 

VI.  The  Challenge  of  Today  and  Tomorrow  178 

Appendix  I  ( Supplemental  Material )  .  .  223 

Appendix  II  ( Bibliography )  ....  241 

Index . 246 


IV 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING 

PAGE 

A  Glimpse  of  Rural  Japan  .  .  Frontispiece 

A  Textile  Mill . 24 

Christian  Helpfulness  for  Factory  Workers  .  25 

Toyohiko  Kagawa  and  His  Little  Friends  .  56 

A  Christian  Social  Settlement . 57 

A  Buddhist  Temple  Ceremony . 88 

A  Buddhist  “Sunday  School”  .....  89 

Dr.  Uemura  and  Dr.  Ibuka  . 120 

Pastor  Hatanaka  and  His  Family  .  .  .  .121 

Preaching  at  a  Temple  Festival . 152 

A  Sewing  Class  of  Bible  Women  .  .  .  .153 

A  Church  in  Osaka . 184 

New  Building  at  Aoyama  Jo  Gakuin  .  .  .185 

Christian  Leaders  of  the  Younger  Generation  .  216 
Christian  Leaders  of  the  Younger  Generation  .  217 


v 


FOREWORD 


The  Japanese  people  rather  than  the  Japanese  gov¬ 
ernment  form  the  central  interest  of  this  book.  Writ¬ 
ten  as  it  is  at  the  request  of  the  missionary  education 
agencies  of  North  America  and  Great  Britain,  it  natu¬ 
rally  focusses  attention  on  those  forces  which  most 
vitally  affect  the  moral  and  religious  welfare  of  the 
people  and  which  therefore  concern  the  Christian  mis¬ 
sionary  enterprise.  The  ruling  purpose  is  not  to  de¬ 
scribe  political,  industrial,  or  even  religious  conditions 
for  their  intrinsic  interest,  but  rather  to  present  suffi¬ 
cient  facts  to  enable  occidental  readers  to  draw  sound 
conclusions  regarding  the  relation  of  Christianity  to 
the  life  of  the  Japanese  people.  Because  the  work  is  so 
brief  and  is  intended  primarily  for  Christian  readers, 
the  author  has  not  attempted  to  maintain  a  purely 
scientific  attitude,  but  has  frequently  stated  convictions 
which  are  based  on  a  wider  range  of  knowledge  and 
experience  than  could  here  be  given.  He  believes, 
however,  that  enough  evidence  is  adduced  to  demon¬ 
strate  that  the  strongest  hope  for  counteracting  the 
germs  of  decay  and  for  fulfilling  the  high  potentialities 
in  the  social  heritage  of  Japan,  lies  in  implanting  more 
widely  the  spirit  and  principles  of  Christ. 

Gigantic  forces  are  in  conflict  in  New  Japan.  People 
and  government  alike  appear  to  be  swept  along  by 
tides  beyond  their  control.  Yet  the  facts  herein  re¬ 
corded  tend  to  show  that  in  the  welter  there  are  dis¬ 
cernible  great  directive  and  creative  forces.  Some  of 


VI 


them  are  ideals  and  traditions  preserved  from  Old 
japan,  and  they  are  precious  and  powerful.  But  even 
more  precious,  more  indispensable  is  the  quiet  but 
penetrating  and  transforming  power  which  Christ 
has  begun  to  exert  in  the  life  of  Japan.  He  is  the 
supreme  source  of  those  creative  forces  which  alone 
offer  hope  for  either  East  or  West.  He  is  the  veritable 
fulfilment  of  the  visions  of  Japan's  noblest  prophets 
and  sages. 

The  author  spent  twenty  happy  years  in  Japan.  He 
believes  in  the  people  as  a  whole,  and  numbers  among 
them  many  trusted  friends.  But  friendship  has  not 
prevented  a  frank  statement  of  the  weak  and  menacing 
as  well  as  the  strong  and  promising  aspects  of  Japanese 
character  and  institutions.  To  compare  small  things 
with  great,  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  emulate  the 
appreciative  but  honest  kind  of  criticism  exemplified 
in  Lord  Bryce’s  “American  Commonwealth."  Al¬ 
though  this  book  was  written  for  occidental  students 
of  Japan,  the  writer  has  said  nothing  which  he  would 
not  gladly  say  to  a  Japanese  friend. 


Note  on  Pronunciation 


The  vowels  in  Japanese  are  pronounced  nearly 
like  the  vowels  in  the  musical  scale,  a  as  in  fa, 
e  as  in  re,  i  as  in  mi,  o  as  in  do,  and  u  like  oo 
in  boot.  In  the  dipthongs  ci  and  ai  both  vowels 
are  pronounced,  but  very  rapidly  as  one  sound. 

There  is  no  accent,  each  syllable  having  prac¬ 
tically  the  same  value,  except  where  certain 
vowels  are  prolonged.  Long  and  short  vowels 
in  Japanese  mean  simply  the  length  of  time  given 
to  them,  not  a  difference  in  sound.  For  instance, 
in  Osaka,  the  O  has  about  twice  the  length  of 
each  of  the  other  syllables. 

An  important  point  is  that  each  syllable  ends 
with  a  vowel,  except  when  the  letter  n  ends  a 
word,  or  when  there  is  a  double  consonant,  as  in 
“Hok-kaido.”  Double  consonants  are  always  both 
given  their  full  value. 

Consonants  have  nearly  the  same  sounds  as  in 
English.  Ch  as  in  child.  G  is  always  hard.  L 
and  v  are  lacking. 


Creative  Forces  in  Japan 


I 

Assets  and  Liabilities  of  the  Japanese  People 

The  heroes  of  any  people  are  perhaps  the  surest 
index  of  their  character.  So  long  and  so  crowded 
with  notable  characters  is  the  history  of  Japan  that 
the  modern  Japanese  youth  has,  in  consequence,  a 
superabundance  of  heroes  to  emulate.  Our  plan  is 
to  choose  just  enough  of  them  to  show  what  qualities 
the  Japanese  people  most  admire  and  themselves 
exemplify. 

I.  the  roll  of  japan's  heroes 

The  old-school  Japanese  historian  and  most  of  the 
school  textbooks  represent  the  Empire  as  having  been 
founded  in  660  b.  c.  by  Jimmu  Tenno,  direct  descen¬ 
dant  of  the  Sun  Goddess.  The  tales  which  recount 
the  exploits  of  Jimmu  and  his  successors  are  about 
as  historical  as  the  myths  and  legends  of  Greece  and 
Rome.  Not  till  the  fourth  century  of  our  era  does 
legend  give  place  to  the  solid  ground  of  history.  Then 
appears  Emperor  Nintoku,  revered  for  his  fatherly 
benevolence  toward  his  people,  as  illustrated  in  this 
well-known  story:  One  day  when  Nintoku  looked 
from  his  palace  tower  far  and  wide  over  the  country, 
he  saw  no  smoke  arising  from  the  houses  and  at  once 
inferred  that  his  subjects  were  too  poor  even  to  cook 


2  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

rice.  Accordingly,  he  intermitted  for  three  years  the 
customary  forced  labor  of  the  people.  During  that 
period  the  palace  fell  into  such  disrepair  that  the  rain 
entered  the  cracks  and  soaked  the  coverlets.  But  when 
Nintoku  again  surveyed  the  land  from  his  tower,  he 
beheld  wreaths  of  smoke  rising  from  every  cottage, 
and  he  rejoiced  exceedingly,  saying,  “My  people’s 
poverty  is  none  other  than  Our  poverty;  but  my 
people’s  prosperity  is  verily  Our  prosperity.”  This 
tradition  of  the  fatherly  solicitude  of  the  Throne  for 
the  people  has  happily  been  true  of  many  of  the 
emperors,  and  today,  when  revolutionary  ideas  of 
popular  rights  are  abroad  in  the  land,  the  Throne 
still  remains  inviolate  in  the  reverent  affection  of 
the  people. 

With  equal  veneration  do  the  Japanese  honor  Prince 
Shotoku,  who  lived  three  centuries  after  Nintoku. 
He  has  been  called  “the  Constantine  of  Japanese 
Buddhism,”  for  when  the  foreign  faith  was  struggling 
to  gain  a  foothold,  he  gave  it  his  powerful  support. 
Some  years  ago  I  saw  at  Tennoji,  Osaka,  the  largest 
bell  in  the  country,  weighing,  perhaps,  ten  tons,  being 
hung  in  honor  of  Shotoku’s  thirteen  hundredth  anni¬ 
versary.  It  is  a  good  sign  that  the  Japanese  today 
delight  to  do  honor  to  one  who  was  indeed  a  prince, 
an  enlightened  statesman,  advocating  close  intercourse 
with  China,  a  believer  in  religion,  and  a  patron  of  art 
and  letters.  It  is  to  the  laws  drawn  up  by  Shotoku 
about  610  a.  d.  that  the  Japanese  attribute  the  trans¬ 
formation  of  their  government  from  the  patriarchal 
system,  when  the  sovereign  was  only  the  head  of  a 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  3 


group  of  tribal  chiefs,  to  the  imperial  system  of  auto¬ 
cratic  authority,  which  lasted  until  1159  when  the 
Shoguns,  or  military  regents,  eclipsed  the  Throne  and 
feudalism  began. 

Buddhism  has  played  so  mighty  a  part  in  Japanese 
culture  that  one  is  not  surprised  to  find  that  several 
of  the  popular  heroes  were  founders  of  Buddhist  sects. 
Three  of  them  stand  preeminent :  Kobo  Daishi  in  the 
eighth  century,  founder  of  the  Shingon  (True  Word) 
Sect,  who  may  be  compared  with  the  mystics  of  Chris¬ 
tian  history;  Shinran  in  the  early  thirteenth  century, 
a  Buddhist  Luther,  founder  of  the  Shin  Sect,  who  de¬ 
nounced  reliance  on  good  works  and  celibacy  and 
exalted  heart-belief  in  the  merits  of  Amida;  and 
Nichiren,  in  the  late  thirteenth  century,  who  revolted 
against  the  older  sects  and  may  be  compared  in  his 
bigotry,  patriotism,  and  missionary  zeal  with  St.  Paul 
before  his  conversion. 

Kobo  Daishi  is  equally  honored  for  his  genius  in  in¬ 
venting  the  running  script  form  of  the  forty-seven 
syllables.  Without  this  simple  syllabary  all  books 
would  have  continued  to  be  written  in  the  complicated 
Chinese  ideographs,  which  even  today  are  “Greek”  to 
the  common  folk. 

The  appeal  of  the  passive  virtues  to  the  Japanese 
heart  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  three  of  the  most 
venerated  men  of  recent  centuries  were  scholars  and 
saints,  all  of  them  bred  on  Confucian  rather  than 
Buddhist  teachings.  The  most  famous  of  them  all  was 
Nakae  Toju,  the  Sage  of  Omi,  whose  sincere  and  lofty 
teachings  and  character  so  impressed  the  peasants  that 


4 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


the  whole  countryside  became  noted  for  its  honesty. 
When  I  visited  his  humble  cottage,  preserved  as  when 
he  lived  in  it,  with  the  gnarled  old  wisteria  vine  ( toju) 
that  he  loved  still  growing  beside  it,  I  gladly  removed 
my  shoes  in  reverence  as  well  as  in  accord  with  custom. 

Toju’s  disciple  Banzan  is  likewise  numbered  among 
the  sages,  though  he  was  a  conservancy  engineer  and 
economist  as  well  as  a  saintly  teacher.  But  it  was  his 
heroic  willingness  to  endure  persecution  and  exile 
rather  than  to  betray  his  convictions  which  has  won 
for  him  the  homage  of  later  generations. 

Coming  to  the  nineteenth  century  we  find  the 
“farmer  saint/’  Ninomiya  Sontoku,  who  preached  the 
gospel  of  industry,  thrift,  arid  gratitude  toward  the 
gods  of  the  fruitful  earth.  His  homely  wisdom 
breathes  in  these  words,  so  like  certain  verses  in  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  :  “We  Japanese  think  that  when 
we  die  we  become  gods  or  Buddhas.  But  I  am  sure  it 
is  impossible  for  a  man  to  become  a  god  or  a  Buddha 
when  he  dies  if  he  is  not  one  when  he  is  living.  It 
is  just  as  impossible  for  a  mackerel  to  become  a  dried 
flounder  when  it  is  dead,  or  for  a  cedar  tree  to  become 
a  pine  tree  when  it  is  cut  down,  as  it  is  for  a  man  to 
become  a  god  or  a  Buddha  when  he  dies,  if  he  is  not 
one  when  he  is  living.” 

More  stirring  is  the  character  of  another  peasant 
saint,  Sakura  Sogoro,  who  unflinchingly  suffered  cru¬ 
cifixion  because  he  had  dared  to  appeal  in  behalf  of  his 
fellow-peasants  to  the  Shogun  against  the  oppression 
of  the  local  feudal  baron. 

But  the  most  ardent  enthusiasm  of  the  people  has 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  5 


always  gone  out,  not  toward  the  saints  or  the  states¬ 
men,  but  toward  the  red-blooded  fighters  and  knights 
errant  whose  deeds  blaze  forth  on  every  page  of  me¬ 
dieval  Japanese  history.  There  is  no  one  key  to  the 
interpretation  of  Japanese  character,  but  the  nearest 
approach  to  it  is  the  samurai ,  or  knight,  with  his  ideals 
of  courage  and  self-control  and  selfless  loyalty.  How 
the  blood  of  every  Japanese  lad  leaps  as  he  hears  some 
story-teller  depict  the  matchless  loyalty  of  Masashige, 
or  as  he  beholds  the  drama  of  the  Forty-seven  Ronin 
(lordless  samurai),  who,  after  plotting  patiently  for 
many  years,  avenged  the  murder  of  their  lord  and 
then  committed  suicide  by  hara-kiri,  or  disembowel¬ 
ling,  in  the  glad  consciousness  of  a  supreme  duty  nobly 
accomplished. 

The  modern  beau  ideal  of  Japanese  youths  is  either 
the  giant  soldier  Saigo  Takamori,  who  headed  the 
futile  rebellion  of  1878,  or  General  Nogi,  the  hero  of 
Port  Arthur,  who  lost  his  two  sons  in  the  siege, 
and  finally,  in  1912,  committed  hara-kiri,  partly  from 
remorse  over  the  thirtv  thousand  lives  his  conduct  of 

J 

the  siege  had  cost  and  partly  as  a  protest  against  the 
luxury  and  corruption  among  army  officers.  Both 
Saigo  and  Nogi  were  incorruptible  patriots,  unspar¬ 
ing  in  self-discipline,  haters  of  sham. 

Several  Christians  have  won  a  place  in  the  roll  of 
heroes  far  beyond  the  Christian  circle.  Chief  among 
them  is  Joseph  Hardy  Neesima,*  who,  at  a  time  when 
to  leave  Japan  was  to  invite  the  death  penalty,  ran 

*  This  is  the  spelling  familiar  to  American  readers,  but  a  more 
accurate  rendering  of  the  Japanese  name  is  “Niisima.” 


6 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


away  to  America  in  search  of  the  true  God,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  become  the  founder  of  Doshisha  University 
and  a  leader  of  the  infant  Protestant  Church.  It  was 
he  who  said:  “Let  us  advance  upon  our  knees,”  and 
who  during  his  lingering  last  illness  prayed  for  each 
of  his  hundreds  of  students. 

Our  gallery  of  heroes  would  be  very  incomplete  if 
we  did  not  add  a  few  of  the  occidental  characters 
vdiom  the  Japanese  most  revere.  The  list  is  not  unlike 
one  which  an  American  or  British  youth  might  make, 
vet  there  are  differences.  Besides  Socrates  and  Col- 
umbus,  Bismarck,  Gladstone,  Washington,  Lincoln, 
and  Roosevelt,  many  educated  Japanese  would  place 
St.  Francis,  Tolstoy,  Mazzini,  Karl  Marx,  and  Dar¬ 
win.  Jesus  they  would  nearly  all  put  in  the  foremost 
place,  even  though  they  knew  only  fragments  of  his 
life.  But  Caesar  and  Napoleon  and  modern  captains 
of  industry  would  also  have  numerous  admirers. 

Thus  far  we  have  only  hinted  at  the  character 
of  present-day  Japanese  by  describing  some  of  their 
heroes.  No  doubt  the  resulting  impression  is  too  favor¬ 
able.  In  honesty  we  should  examine  both  sides  of  the 
shield,  for  it  is  our  purpose  to  gain  a  faithful  concep¬ 
tion  of  the  liabilities  no  less  than  the  assets  of  the  Jap¬ 
anese  people.  It  would,  of  course,  be  more  congenial 
to  focus  attention  only  on  their  strong  points,  but  to 
do  that  would  not  enable  us  to  forecast  the  kind  of 
influence  they  are  likely  to  exert  on  other  nations 
or  to  discover  the  places  where  the  power  of  Christ 
is  especially  needed. 

It  is  well  to  disabuse  our  minds  at  the  outset  of  the 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  7 

notion  that  the  Japanese  are  either  super-men  or  mys¬ 
tery-men,  A  Japanese  thinker  thus  exploded  this  no¬ 
tion  for  me:  “It  makes  me  smile  to  hear  Westerners 
talk  about  the  uncanny  sublety  and  ability  of  us 
Japanese  as  though  we  were  demigods.  The  fact 
is  we  are  very  ordinary,  fallible  folk,  eager  to  be 
in  the  front  rank,  but  with  little  besides  ambi¬ 
tion  and  grit  and  a  fear  of  Western  nations  to  put 
us  there/ ■ ’ 

Differences  of  language,  religion,  and  custom  do 
set  up  a  barrier,  but  it  is  no  harder  for  us  to  under¬ 
stand  the  Japanese  than  for  them  to  understand  us. 
It  is  hard,  but  not  at  all  impossible  either  way  for 
any  person  who  will  pay  the  price  in  sympathy,  im¬ 
agination,  and  effort,  instead  of  being  satisfied  with 
the  hearsay  deck-chair  opinions  of  casual  travelers 
and  sensational  writers.  The  Japanese  are  admitted 
by  everyone  who  is  well  acquainted  with  them  and 
their  history  to  have  developed  a  brilliant  culture  and 
to  possess  today  capacities  of  a  high  order.  Ap¬ 
proaching  the  subject,  then,  with  a  fair  mind,  we  shall 
attempt  first  to  see  the  Japanese  as  they  are,  which  re¬ 
quires  sympathy  as  well  as  knowledge,  and  later  we 
shall  discuss  how  they  are  being  made  better. 

II.  MENTAL  CAPACITIES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 

In  mental  ability  the  Japanese  rank  high.  Like  the 
Chinese,  they  have,  until  recently,  been  brought  up  to 
learn  by  rote,  but  with  surprising  speed  they  have  in¬ 
troduced  Western  education  and  scientific  method. 
The  mental  ability  of  the  Japanese  has  recently  been 


8 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


strikingly  confirmed  by  the  investigations  of  Professor 
Terman  of  Stanford  University.* 

The  philosophical  ability  of  the  Japanese  has  been 
over-rated.  It  is  true  that  the  more  advanced  stu¬ 
dents  read  Western  philosophers  and  enjoy  abstract 
discussion,  but  the  bent  of  the  people  as  a  whole  is 
decidedly  practical  and  concrete.  The  rank  and  file, 
even  more  than  in  occidental  countries,  are  appealed 
to  through  sentiment,  story,  and  immediate  practical 
advantage.  Yet,  in  the  field  of  scientific  research  not 
a  few  Japanese  have  attained  eminence.  The  best 
known  instances  are  Dr.  Kitasato  and  Dr.  Noguchi, 
whose  brilliant  work  in  bacteriology  culminated  in  the 
discovery  of  the  bacilli  of  plague  and  yellow  fever  and 
the  remedy  for  beri-beri. 

Intellectual  capacity  of  a  large  creative  sort  has  been 
exhibited  most  notably  by  the  Japanese  in  the  realm  of 
government  and  statesmanship.  The  organization  of 
Japan  by  Iyeyasu,  the  Charlemagne  of  seventeenth 
century  Japan,  was  a  masterpiece  of  political  genius, 
for  the  structure  he  devised  functioned  successfully  for 
over  two  hundred  years.  The  world  knows  what  saga¬ 
city  and  foresight  certain  Japanese  statesmen  have  ex¬ 
hibited  in  modern  times.  Mr.  Tyler  Dennett  in  his 
Americans  in  Eastern  Asia  has  shown  how  the  Japa¬ 
nese  policy  towards  Korea,  which  was  formulated 
thirty-five  years  ago,  was  steadfastly  adhered  to  until 
it  resulted  logically  in  the  annexation  of  Korea  in  1910. 

It  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  Japanese  as  strong 
in  imitation  but  weak  in  invention,  and  there  is  some 

*  See  page  60. 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  9 


truth  in  this  assumption.  But  while  they  cannot  lay 
claim  to  many  great  inventions  or  creative  achieve¬ 
ments,  they  have  never  adopted  ideas  or  institutions 
from  other  countries  without  so  modifying  and  adding 
to  them  as  to  create  something  new.  Even  in  pottery 
and  weaving  designs  Japanese  craftsmen  have  been 
accustomed  to  give  an  original  shade  or  twist  to  each 
new  piece,  as  foreign  buyers  often  discover  when  they 
wish  to  match  a  color  or  a  pattern.  Their  power  of 
selective  discrimination  in  gathering  the  best  in  all 
realms  from  other  nations  has  been  brilliantly  illus¬ 
trated  during  the  last  fifty  years.  They  may  be  said  to 
have  skimmed  the  cream  from  both  East  and  West. 
One  factor  in  their  capacity  to  assimilate  ideas  from 
all  quarters  is  their  marked  inquisitiveness,  always  the 
sign  of  a  growing  mind. 

Another  prominent  trait,  lying  at  the  base  of  most 
of  the  nation’s  recent  progress,  is  the  passion  for  ed¬ 
ucation.  The  common  school  system  was  founded  by 
Viscount  Mori,  an  early  Minister  to  the  United 
States — and  a  Christian.  He  was  aided  by  foreign 
advisers.  The  school  enrolment  now  is  as  high  as 
in  any  but  the  most  advanced  European  nations,  being 
over  ninety-eight  per  cent  of  both  boys  and  girls.  One 
result  is  that  nearly  every  Japanese  under  thirty  years 
of  age  can  read  and  write,  and  it  is  common  to  see  the 
jinrikisha  pullers  and  navvies  reading  newspapers  and 
novels.  It  is  a  very  poor  school  that  is  not  filled 
to  overflowing.  Five  or  even  ten  times  as  many  men 
as  can  be  admitted  take  the  stiff  entrance  examinations 
for  the  higher  schools.  Apprentices  and  artisans  who 


10 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


rise  at  daybreak  and  work  ten  or  twelve  hours  are 
enroled  by  the  thousands  in  evening  schools.  One  of 
the  schools  teaching  English  only,  in  Kanda  Ward, 
that  hive  of  students  in  Tokyo,  numbers  from  five  to 
eight  thousand  pupils.  Correspondence  schools  flour¬ 
ish.  Girls  have  sold  their  virtue  in  order  to  earn 
money  wherewith  to  educate  their  brothers  or  them¬ 
selves. 

But  there  are  defects  in  the  educational  system 
which  reflect  weaknesses  in  the  people.  As  in  every 
bureaucratic  country,  uniformity  and  system  have  be¬ 
come  a  fetish.  The  private  schools,  especially  those 
conducted  by  Christians,  have  rendered  a  great  service 
by  standing  for  variation  and  freedom  for  individual 
initiative,  but  they  have  found  it  exceedingly  hard  to 
resist  the  steam-roller  of  State  regulation.  Of  late, 
however,  the  government  authorities  seem  to  be 
awakening  to  the  need  of  just  the  elements  which  the 
private  schools  can  supply,  including  the  character- 
building  power  of  Christ.  Another  weakness  is  the 
tendency  to1  over-value  examinations,  lecture-notes, 
and  degrees.  Many  a  student  crams,  drinks  coffee, 
and  manages  to  get  by  the  dreaded  examination  ogre, 
but  he  may  have  crippled  his  health  in  the  bargain. 
Superficiality  is  not  peculiar  to  Japanese  students,  but 
the  very  fact  that  Japan  is  as  full  of  new  ideas  and 
books  as  a  switchboard  is  of  wires  tempts  some  eager 
students  to  dip  into  one  after  the  other  only  long 
enough  to  acquire  the  catch- words. 

If  it  be  suggested  that  fickleness  is  a  Japanese  trait, 
I  would  reply  that  it  is  rash  to  make  the  assertion. 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  n 

Only  fifty  years  ago  the  entire  menu  of  Western  civ¬ 
ilization  was  served  in  one  promiscuous  course  to  the 
Japanese  people.  They  forthwith  tried  to  eat  it  all,  but 
finding  that  impossible,  began  to  dip  into  this  and  that 
and  the  other  dish  like  tea-tasters.  Any  student  of 
old  Japan  would  be  more  likely  to  accuse  the  people 
of  being  set  and  stolidly  slow  and  conservative  than 
of  being  fickle.  It  will  require  another  generation  for 
the  new  molds  of  custom  and  thought  to  harden.  The 
momentary  fickleness,  if  it  be  such,  means  plasticity, 
a  trait  most  welcome  to  all  who  would  like  to  see  the 
people  recast  in  a  Christian  mold. 

The  Japanese  are  a  nation  of  artists.  Their  aes¬ 
thetic  sensibility  and  the  delicate  physique  of  their  cul¬ 
tivated  classes  sometimes  make  them  appear  feminine 
to  an  occidental  observer.  There  is  some  truth  in 
this,  and  it  is  rather  in  their  favor  than  otherwise.  As 
Dr.  Nitobe  has  happily  put  it,  “A  Japanese  gentleman 
feels  like  a  woman  and  acts  like  a  man.”  Artistically 
the  only  modern  people  who  approach  them  are  the 
Italians.  In  what  other  land  do  peasants  uncover  in 
reverent  delight  before  a  beautiful  landscape  or  a  full- 
orbed  moon?  And  the  color-prints  now  so  eagerly 
sought  by  connoisseurs  the  world  over  were  created, 
not  by  cultured  aristocrats,  but  by  plebeian  artisans, 
who  found  in  such  works,  inimitably  beautiful  and 
whimsical  by  turn,  an  outlet  for  their  pent-up  humor 
and  love  of  beauty.  The  unfailing  harmony  of  soft 
colors  and  the  simplicity  of  line  are  revelations  of  the 
moral  as  well  as  of  the  intellectual  traits  of  the  people. 
In  the  weird  No  dramas,  also,  are  depicted  with  almost 


12 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


Grecian  beauty  and  force,  the  mystery  and  the  pathos 
of  life.  The  No  is  original  with  the  Japanese.  But 
Japan  has  given  to  the  world  no  works  either  in 
literature  or  in  art — unless  it  be  the  giant  bronze 
statues  of  Buddha — which  can  compare  in  grandeur  of 
conception  or  masculine  vigor  of  treatment  with  the 
masterpieces  of  Europe. 

How  shall  one  reconcile  aesthetic  taste  with  the 
atrocious  architecture  of  so  many  Western-styled 
structures  in  Japan?  By  the  same  principle  that  one 
accounts  for  the  bad  manners  of  some  Japanese  trav¬ 
elers  in  railway  coaches.  If  the  imported  forms  were 
not  so  radically  different  from  anything  in  their  old 
system,  they  could  readily  incorporate  them,  but  as  it 
is,  they  try  to  imitate  the  foreign  style  in  toto  and 
make  a  botch  of  it. 

The  artistic  genius  of  the  Japanese  is  manifestly 
related  to  the  rich  and  picturesque  scenery  that  greets 
them  on  every  hand.  They  love  the  outdoors  and 
drink  in  the  beauties  of  nature  in  all  her  changing 
moods.  They  revel  in  festivals  and  even  in  hard  out¬ 
door  work ;  country  girls  at  school  in  the  city  are  often 
seen  to  grow  restless  and  to  pine  at  the  rice  planting 
time  when  they  long  to  be  at  home  with  all  their  family 
and  neighbors,  wading  in  mud  to  their  knees  and 
chanting  old  ditties  while  they  set  out  the  tender  rice 
shoots. 

One  of  the  most  attractive  features  of  the  school 
life  in  Japan  is  the  scheme  of  excursions  by  which 
each  year  hundreds  of  thousands  of  boys  and  girls  go 
off  under  the  leadership  of  their  teachers  to  visit  spots 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  13 

noted  for  their  beauty  or  historic  interest.  If  they  are 
primary  school  children,  they  generally  go  only  to  near¬ 
by  places.  Each  child  will  have  his  frugal  luncheon  of 
rice,  pickle,  and  beans  or  stiff  curds  wrapped  in  a  col¬ 
ored  bandanna  ( furoshiki )  and  tied  to  his  belt.  They 
are  more  restrained  and  docile  than  occidental  school¬ 
boys  and  rarely  cause  trouble  either  to  their  teacher- 
guides  or  to  the  farmers  and  townspeople  whose  prop¬ 
erty  they  pass.  If  they  are  high  school  boys,  they 
may  go  on  a  trip  of  two  or  three  hundred  miles,  their 
impedimenta  limited  to  a  tooth-brush,  an  extra  pair  of 
rice-straw  sandals,  a  towel — that  serves  also  as  a  hand¬ 
kerchief — and  a  diary  that  is  religiously  kept.  A  de¬ 
cade  ago  the  boys  and  girls  alike  acted  with  the  de¬ 
corum  of  adults,  but  with  the  influx  of  ideas  like  “self- 
determination”  and  “feminism,”  they  are  evincing 
more  of  the  freedom  and  self-assertion  which  charac¬ 
terize  youth  in  the  Occident.  But  even  yet  they  retain 
a  pronounced  love  of  nature.  On  their  excursions  or 
at  social  gatherings  it  is  not  unusual  for  them  to  pen 
delicate  little  poems — of  the  standard  thirty-one  syl¬ 
lables — which  they  may  tie,  without  a  blush,  to  the 
branch  of  a  cherry  tree  in  bloom. 

This  love  of  nature  is  intimately  intertwined  with 
religious  sentiment.  They  have  retained  in  a  refined 
form  the  animism  of  a  primitive  age,  which  sees  a  god 
or  spirit  in  every  wondrous  or  powerful  object.  Hence 
polytheism  and  pantheism —  many  gods,  or  all  is  god 
— cling  more  tenaciously  to  the  Japanese  than  to  most 
modern  peoples.  In  this  sense,  assuredly,  the  Japa¬ 
nese  are  very  religious.  The  sacred  ropes  and  fringes 


14 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


of  paper  with  which  they  deck  every  grand  tree  or  rock 
or  waterfall  are  instinct  with  a  sense  of  the  mystery 
and  wonder  of  creation.  It  may  be  all  vague  and 
mingled  with  superstition,  but  it  nourishes  reverence 
and  a  sense  of  dependence  on  the  higher  powers. 

The  Japanese  are  both  emotional  and  self-controlled. 
Their  soubriquet  “the  Frenchmen  of  the  East”  does 
not  seem  appropriate  to  the  typical  samurai  or  even 
to  the  Japanese  traveler  whom  strangers  find  so  un¬ 
communicative.  Yet  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
people  or  even  casual  observation  of  their  public  gath¬ 
erings  reveals  a  strong  strain  of  feeling,  only  awaiting 
the  right  touch  of  oratory  or  exciting  event  to  express 
itself.  The  immobile  features  and  the  stiff,  restrained 
demeanor  are  the  social  heritage  of  centuries  of  a 
stoical  samurai  tradition.  Underneath  the  crust  the 
volcanic  fires  are  burning  hot.  Where  logical  appeals 
will  move  a  small  group  of  intellectuals,  sentiment 
will  sway  the  multitudes  and  the  intellectuals  alike. 

III.  SOME  MORAL  QUALITIES 

As  to  the  chief  moral  qualities  of  the  Japanese  peo¬ 
ple,  if  one  asked  any  school-boy  what  they  were,  he 
would  promptly  answer,  “Loyalty  and  filial  piety.” 
And  he  would  be  right.  From  ancient  times  they  have 
been  the  twin  pillars  of  society.  In  every  feudal  order, 
loyalty  was  the  cardinal  virtue,  for  life  depended  upon 
it.  And  the  persistence  of  feudalism,  up  to  1868,  has 
left  loyalty  still  in  the  first  place.  In  olden  times  loy¬ 
alty  meant  chiefly  devotion  to  a  near-by  feudal  clan 
chieftain  who  protected  his  vassals,  for  the  people  had 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  15 

but  little  thought  of  the  far-away  Emperor.  But  when, 
in  the  struggle  between  two  groups  of  clans,  the  roy¬ 
alist  clans,  in  1868,  restored  the  Emperor  to  full  power 
and  ended  the  Shogunate  or  military  regency,  the 
sagacious  leaders  in  the  new  regime  encouraged  the 
people  to  concentrate  upon  the  Emperor  the  loyalties 
which  they  had  formerly  shown  toward  their  lords. 
So  vehement  has  been  the  emphasis  upon  loyalty  to 
the  Emperor  and  its  correlative,  national  patriotism, 
that  other  more  homely  virtues  have  been  overshad¬ 
owed,  and  in  many  cases  a  blind  nationalism  has  been 
generated  which  tends  to  be  anti-foreign  and  jingo¬ 
istic.  Yet  despite  such  perversions,  the  spirit  of  loyal¬ 
ty  remains  a  great  asset  of  the  Japanese  people.  In 
superiors  and  heroes,  but  increasingly  it  is  being  shown 
the  past,  it  has  been  too  much  confined  to  individual 
toward  causes  and  principles.  The  devotion  which 
many  a  struggling  church  or  school  or  labor  union 
has  called  forth,  is  big  with  promise.  Christianity,  by 
its  appeal  to  loyalty  toward  a  Person  who  embodies 
in  Himself  both  the  heroic  ideal  and  the  principles  of 
right  and  truth,  builds  upon  and  raises  to  a  higher 
plane  the  old-time  loyalties. 

Filial  piety  toward  parents  and  ancestors  has  also 
survived  in  remarkable  vigor  in  Japan,  because  the 
family  system  still  maintains  a  central  place.  To  a 
Westerner,  the  notion  of  the  dictation  of  the  family 
council  to  every  individual  member  savors  of  tyranny. 
The  preferences  of  the  individual  as  to  marriage  or  oc¬ 
cupation  or  residence  or  faith  have,  until  recently, 
counted  but  little  in  comparison  with  the  interests  of 


1 6  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

the  “house*’  and  the  opinions  of  the  elders.  The  most 
tragic  situations  in  Japanese  life  have  always  arisen 
A  from  the  conflict  between  individual  and  family  will, 
or  between  the  two  loyalties — to  the  family  and  to 
the  liege  lord  or  Emperor.  Here  again  the  Christian 
revelation  of  the  Heavenly  Father,  and  of  the  all-in¬ 
clusive  family,  finds  a  prepared  soil,  and  it  tends  to 
relieve  the  individual  of  the  tyrannical  dictation  of  the 
family  council  and  put  him  under  the  liberating  direc¬ 
tion  of  a  conscience  sensitive  to  the  Father’s  will. 

With  the  supremacy  of  the  family  and  the  impor¬ 
tance  of  sons  to  perpetuate  it  has  gone  the  tendency  to 
consider  women  as  means  rather  than  ends,  persons 
not  in  their  own  right,  but  by  virtue  of  bearing  and 
rearing  children.  The  urgency  of  keeping  up  the 
family  line  has  encouraged  concubinage,  divorce,  and 
adoption.  Filial  duty  has  required  many  a  daughter 
to  give  herself  uncomplainingly  to  a  life  of  shame  in 
order  to  earn  money  to  support  misguided  parents. 
Yet  the  emancipation  of  woman  and  the  loosening  of 
the  grip  of  family  authority  are  both  taking  place 
rapidly  nowadays,  almost  too  rapidly.  Christian  in¬ 
fluence  has  had  much  to  do  with  hastening  these 
changes,  but  the  trouble  is  that  the  Christian  principles 
'  of  self-control  and  of  glad  bondage  to  the  service  of 
family,  self,  and  society  for  Christ's  sake  are  spreading 
too  slowly. 

Propriety,  or  doing  the  appropriate  thing  in  the 
right  way,  is  one  of  the  leading  virtues.  It  roots 
back  in  the  Chinese  teaching  on  “universal  harmony,” 
embracing  the  proper  conduct  toward  superiors  and 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OE  THE  JAPANESE  17 


inferiors.  Hence,  etiquette  is  an  elaborate  system, 
with  prescriptions  for  all  manner  of  situations.  To  a 
Japanese,  propriety  is  a  fine  art ;  to  an  American,  it  is 
the  expression  of  a  good  heart.  To  the  one,  form 
is  inseparable  from  morality  ;  to  the  other,  right  mo¬ 
tive  covers  a  multitude  of  breaches  of  good  form. 
To  “save  one’s  face”  takes  rank  with  defending  one’s 
integrity.  Hence,  great  pains  must  be  taken  to  admin¬ 
ister  a  rebuke  or  a  punishment  with  proper  regard  to 
the  “face”  of  the  person  affected.  But  if  the  humil¬ 
iation  of  the  person  is  sought,  the  surest  way  is  to 
expose  him  to  ridicule.  In  the  Japanese  home  and 
school-room  ridicule  is  the  most  potent  form  of  dis¬ 
cipline,  whereas  corporal  punishment  is  almost  never 
inflicted.  In  some  parts  of  the  Orient  it  is  not  unusual 
for  an  irate  foreigner  to  use  his  cane  on  the  shoulders 
of  a  jinrikisha  puller  or  a  coolie  who  has  offended 
him,  but  in  Japan  such  conduct  would  land  the  for¬ 
eigner  in  a  police  station. 

Are  the  Japanese  truthful  and  honest?  In  other 
words,  are  they  dependable?  Yes  and  no.  Propriety 
in  the  large  and  ethical  sense  just  described  still  takes 
precedence  with  many  Japanese  over  what  we  know 
as  the  abstract  principles  of  right  and  wrong.  An 
offense  against  the  wishes  of  a  superior  is  likely  to 
seem  more  heinous  than  an  offense  against  impersonal 
right  or  law.  It  is  another  vestige  of  the  loyalty  so 
deeply  ingrained  by  feudalism.  Hence,  in  everyday 
life  a  servant  or  a  tradesman  may  prevaricate  rather 
than  displease  you.  Honesty  in  commercial  affairs 
is,  in  every  nation,  a  slow  outgrowth  of  a  commercial 


1 8  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

order,  such  as  the  Chinese  have  had  for  many  genera¬ 
tions,  and  is  not  deemed  an  important  virtue  in  a 
feudal  age,  such  as  that  from  which  the  Japanese  have 
but  barely  emerged.  The  merchant  used  to  be  tol¬ 
erated  by  the  two-sworded  samurai  much  as  the 
Jewish  money-lender  was  tolerated  in  the  time  of 
“Ivanhoe.”  He  ranked  lowest  in  the  social  scale,  below 
the  fanner  and  the  artisan,  and  only  just  above  the 
outcast.  Naturally  he  had  to  live  by  his  wits  and  knew 
no  law  but  self-preservation.  But  with  the  modern 
rise  of  trade  and  industry,  the  merchant  has  risen  in 
society,  and  a  long  list  of  merchant  princes  have  been 
created  barons  and  viscounts. 

But  someone  asks,  “How  about  the  necessity  of 
employing  Chinese  tellers  in  Japanese  banks?'’  The 
simple  answer  is — it  is  a  lie  made  out  of  whole  cloth, 
but  it  has  astounding  vitality.  There  never  has  been 
a  Chinese  employed  in  any  bank  in  Japan  except  in  the 
British  and  other  foreign  banks,  most  of  which  have 
their  main  offices  in  China  or  India. 

In  feudal  times  the  samurai  lived  by  their  swords 
and  scorned  money,  and  one  reason  for  the  compara¬ 
tive  honesty  of  the  public  services  is  that  they  are  so 
largely  officered  by  men  of  samurai  ancestry.  The 
emphasis  laid  upon  loyalty  has  also  done  much  to 
prevent  cheating  the  government.  Yet,  even  in  the 
army  and  navy  there  have  been  shocking  scandals 
through  bribery  and  theft  during  the  last  decade,  for 
it  takes  more  than  a  proud  ancestry  to  keep  a  man 
straight  when  he  sees  men  all  around  him  getting 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  19 

rich  by  speculation  and  graft  while  he  slaves  away  on 
meager  pay. 

In  unnumbered  journeys  in  nearly  every  province 
'of  the  Empire  I  have  never  lost  a  penny  by  theft, 
though  I  have  lodged  in  inns  where  the  noiseless 
sliding  inner  doors  and  partitions  without  locks  made 
sneak-thievery  by  fellow-guests  quite  easy.  Similar 
testimony  would  be  borne  by  hundreds  of  other  mis¬ 
sionaries.  The  peasants  and  the  officials,  as  a  whole, 
are  remarkably  punctilious  about  other  people’s  prop¬ 
erty,  and  the  domestics  in  foreigners’  homes — most 
of  whom  come  from  the  country — are  rarely  guilty 
of  anything  worse  than  taking  small  “squeezes”  or 
commissions  from  tradesmen.  In  the  hotels  and  the 
houses  of  foreign  merchants  in  port  cities  I  have 
heard  of  not  a  few  dishonest  servants,  but  among 
scores  of  missionary  families  that  I  have  known, 
there  have  been  only  two  or  three  cases. 

The  trickery  and  rascality  of  many  contractors  and 
small  merchants  have  doubtless  done  much  to  give 
japan  a  bad  name.  They  have  notoriously  easy  con¬ 
sciences,  and  even  large  merchants  have  canceled  or¬ 
ders  and  stolen  trademarks  and  shipped  goods  far  be¬ 
low  sample;  but,  speaking  broadly,  the  Japanese  people 
are  trustworthy,  especially  where  they  feel  account¬ 
able  to  some  person  who  is  himself  just  and  straight. 

Self-confidence  is  a  marked  trait,  even  though  the 
samurai  code  requires  that  it  be  veiled  behind  a  dig¬ 
nified  reserve.  And  who  shall  deny  that  the  achieve¬ 
ments  of  the  nation  and  of  countless  individuals  have 


20 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


given  good  warrant  for  the  feeling?  The  quiet  assur¬ 
ance  with  which  an  artisan  will  tackle  the  job  of  imitat¬ 
ing  some  foreign  device  on  the  basis  of  a  woodcut  in  a 
mail-order  catalog,  or  the  readiness  of  any  town  poli¬ 
tician  to  step  up  higher  even  to  taking  a  place  in  the 
cabinet,  has  its  amusing  as  well  as  admirable  side.  It 
is  all  so  much  like  the  pluck  and  self-reliance  and  “self- 
made  man”  doctrine  so  popular  in  'America,  that 
Americans  with  a  sense  of  humor  would  smile  to  see 
the  mirror  held  up  to  themselves  by  their  Japanese 
cousins.  Many  a  Japanese  sophomore  has  assured  me, 
in  all  seriousness,  that  he  felt  impelled  to  carve  out  a 
great  career  in  politics  and  save  the  Empire.  And  some 
of  them  are  making  their  dreams  come  true.  I  know 
of  more  than  one  case  like  that  of  the  lad  who  walked 
three  hundred  miles  to  enter  high  school,  worked  his 
way  through,  and  is  now  a  national  force. 

But  conceit  lurks  at  the  heels  of  self-confidence.  It 
is  probably  the  bumptious  self-assertiveness  of  many 
of  the  Japanese  in  China  and  Siberia  which  has  gone 
far  to  make  them  anathema  to  other  nationalities. 
One  can  make  allowances  for  the  unlimited  patriotic 
pride  of  some  Japanese  when  the  primary  school  teach¬ 
ing  about  the  Land  of  the  Gods  is  taken  into  account, 
but  it  is  none  the  less  irritating  to  foreigners,  especially 
if,  like  Americans,  they  are  gifted  with  a  blind  eye 
for  their  own  country’s  faults. 

Cheerfulness  and  pessimism  have  both  been  at¬ 
tributed  to  the  Japanese.  But  my  experience  is  that, 
while  Buddhism  has  given  a  fatalistic  and  pessimistic 
tone  to  literature  and  thought,  yet  the  ordinary  people 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  21 

take  life  as  it  comes  with  equanimity  and  a  smile.  To 
be  sure,  the  smile  is  often  a  matter  of  etiquette,  an  evi¬ 
dence  of  that  samurai  control  over  the  emotions  which 
has  become  ingrained  in  all  classes.  But  I  have  been 
struck  by  the  imperturbable  good  nature  and  cheerful 
conversation  of  the  average  Japanese,  of  the  jinrikisha 
man  who  pulls  you  over  hard  country  roads,  of  the 
farmer  resting  on  his  mattock  to  pass  the  time  of  day, 
of  the  clerks  and  hotel  servants,  and  even  of  the 
statuesque  policeman,  if  you  accost  them  graciously 
in  their  own  tongue. 

Energy  is  the  last  characteristic  to  be  mentioned. 
It  finds  outlet  in  unflagging  industry  among  the  farm¬ 
ers  and  artisans.  To  be  sure,  the  pressure  of  necessity 
does  not  allow  much  loafing,  but  even  the  well-to-do 
classes  exhibit  an  energy  and  a  zest  for  life  which 
impress  the  traveler  fresh  from  easy-going  tropical 
lands.  No  one  would  speak  of  “laziness”  in  the  same 
breath  with  “Japanese.”  In  old  Japan,  industry  was 
often  a  by-product  of  the  accepted  ethical  code,  but  in 
new  Japan  a  powerful  new  force  supplies  much  of  the 
drive — the  ambition  to  excel,  the  thirst  for  progress, 
both  individually  and  nationally.  Everyone  who  has 
tried  to  enlist  the  Japanese  in  a  new  enterprise,  like 
the  Christian  movement,  has  probably  at  some  time 
been  dismayed  to  have  them  dash  off  and  set  to  work 
before  they  had  half  mastered  the  idea,  but  on  second 
thought  one  has  laughed  and  thanked  God  that  they 
had  so  much  energy  and  ambition ;  for  you  can  steer 
a  moving  ship,  but  there  is  small  hope  for  a  scow 
stuck  in  the  mud. 


22 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


IV.  PHYSICAL  STAMINA 

But  what  of  the  physical  framework  which  supports 
the  mental  and  moral  qualities  of  the  Japanese  people? 
The  phrase  “a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body’7  may  not 
inappropriately  be  applied  to  them,  for  physical 
stamina  they  possess  in  good  measure. 

Their  racial  stock  has  the  advantage  of  combining 
the  rugged  brawn  of  the  northern  Mongols  and  abor¬ 
iginal  hairy  Ainu  with  the  temperamental  plasticity 
and  sensitiveness  of  the  Malays.*  They  have  always 
produced  good  fighters  as  well  as  good  artists.  Count¬ 
less  deeds  of  superhuman  endurance  and  dash  are  re¬ 
counted  in  the  old  Japanese  romances.  And  in  our 
day,  the  build  of  the  soldiers,  drafted  from  every 
corner  of  the  Empire,  and  the  achievements  of  the 
school  athletes  in  the  Far  Eastern  Olympic  Games  give 
evidence  that  the  race  is  holding  its  own.  American 
tennis  stars  can  testify  that  in  Kumagae  and  Shimizu 
they  have  found  foemen  worthy  of  their  best  racquets. 

Japanese  soldiers  average  five  or  six  inches  shorter 
than  the  American  doughboy.  But  the  difference  is  two 
thirds  in  length  of  leg,  whereas,  if  seated  they  would 
appear  nearly  of  a  height.  The  infantry  are  rated 
among  the  best  in  the  world,  partly  because  their 
stocky,  short-legged  build  makes  them  splendid  march¬ 
ers.  Just  as  in  England  the  modern  man  often  finds 
himself  too  large  to  get  into  the  suit  of  mail  worn  by 

*The  ancient  legends  which  tell  of  the  coming  to  Japan  of 
demi-god  conquerors  from  the  northwest  and  from  the  south 
are  confirmed  by  critical  history.  There  are  even  some  traces  of 
an  infusion  of  Aryan  blood  via  the  steppes  of  Siberia. 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  23 

a  famous  mediaeval  ancestor,  so,  in  Japan,  the  ancient 
armor  shows  that  on  the  average  the  race  has  not 
grown  smaller.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  army  meas¬ 
urements  indicate  that  the  average  height  has  increased 
at  least  half  an  inch  during  the  last  generation.  This 
may  be  due  to  better  food  and  sanitation  or  to  giving 
the  blood  freer  circulation  by  the  wider  use  of  chairs 
instead  of  squatting.  The  outdoor  pursuits  of  the  bulk 
of  the  people — for  seventy-five  per  cent  of  them  are 
still  farmers  or  fishermen — and  the  temperate  and 
fairly  bracing  climate  account  in  large  degree  for  the 
rugged  physique  of  peasant  Japanese.  Vegetarians 
may  find  comfort  in  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  have, 
for  ages,  eaten  practically  no  meat  except  fish,  and 
even  today  beef  and  milk  are  only  slowy  passing  out 
of  the  category  of  luxuries. 

Japanese  physicians  are  numerous  and  well  trained, 
but  the  construction  of  dwellings  and  the  habits  of  the 
people  make  proper  sanitation  and  ventilation  difficult. 
There  are  no  underground  sewers,  and  night-soil 
stands  in  cesspools  and  is  removed  now  and  then  in 
tubs.  The  loose  construction  of  the  dwellings  allows 
some  ventilation  in  the  daytime,  but  at  night  and  in 
stormy  weather  when  the  wooden  shutters  are  all 
closed,  hardly  a  crevice  is  left  open.  The  carbonic 
acid  gas  generated  by  the  charcoal  braziers  used  to 
heat  houses  in  winter  undoubtedly  makes  the  people 
more  susceptible  to  pulmonary  diseases.  Indeed,  tuber¬ 
culosis  is  a  serious  menace,  claiming  more  victims  in 
Japan  than  in  America  or  in  any  European  nation. 
One  of  the  causes  of  good-natured  altercations  be- 


24 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

tween  American  guests  and  hotel  managers  is  the  strict 
rule  against  leaving  even  a  crack  open  between  the 
sliding  outer  doors  which  encase  every  hotel.  Beside 
dreading  night  air,  the  people  are  afraid  that  thieves 
may  take  advantage  of  such  cracks. 

Certain  institutions  and  ideals  have  tended  to  lower 
physical  vigor.  Prolonged  practice  of  concubinage 
by  the  upper  classes  has  inevitably  impoverished  some 
of  the  ancient  family  lines,  necessitating  the  ingrafting 
by  adoption  or  marriage  of  virile  middle-class  stock. 
Then,  too,  the  vacant,  shut-in  lives  to  which  many 
of  the  upper-class  women  are  condemned,  even  today, 
cannot  but  tend  to  physical  as  well  as  mental  deteriora¬ 
tion.  But  a  still  more  dangerous  foe  is  disease  caused 
by  sexual  vices,  victims  of  which  are  said  to  fill  at  least 
a  third  of  the  hospital  beds  and  temple  graves.  In¬ 
junctions  to  self-control  and  purity  are  not  lacking 
in  the  Confucian  and  Shinto  teachings,  but  the  domi¬ 
nant  influence  of  Buddhism, — with  its  low  estimate 
of  woman  and  its  easy  compromise  with  sin  in  ex¬ 
change  for  penance  and  pilgrimage, — has  offered  little 
barrier  to  prostitution,  impurity,  and  self-indulgence. 
The  pest-holes  of  illicit  vice  in  the  cities  of  America 
and  Great  Britain  are  a  reproach,  but  is  it  not  vastly 
1  better  for  the  morals  and  health  of  a  people  to  main¬ 
tain  a  ceaseless  warfare  against  immorality  and  put 
it  under  the  ban  of  both  law  and  public  opinion  than 
to  give  it,  as  in  Japan,  the  guise  of  respectability  by 
state  license  and  protection,  and  the  gloss  of  safety 
by  an  admittedly  ineffective  medical  inspection? 

A- Jap 


WOMEN  WORKERS  IN  ONE  OF  THE  BEST  TEXTILE  MILLS 


A  KNITTING  CLASS  OF  WORKING  WOMEN,  SINGING  AT  A  CHRISTMAS 
ENTERTAINMENT  HELD  AT  MISS  MACDONALD’S  HOME  AND  ATTENDED 
BY  FOUR  HUNDRED  WORKMEN  AND  EX-PRISONERS  AND  THEIR  FAMI¬ 
LIES.  BELOW,  THE  LABOR  NIGHT  SCHOOL  OF  THE  OSAKA  Y.  M.  C.  A. 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  25 

Equally  menacing  to  physical  stamina  are  the  un¬ 
healthy  conditions  of  life  due  to  the  growth  of  cities 
and  the  concomitant  crowding  of  a  growing  proportion 
of  the  people  into  factories  and  offices  and  unwhole¬ 
some  living  quarters.  Factory  life  is  especially  hard 
on  women.  The  effect  of  mill  work  on  the  fertility 
of  women  has  been  proved  to  be  bad,  notably  in  Great 
Britain,  for  the  birth-rate  in  textile  areas  where  women 
work  in  the  mills  is  only  twenty-two  per  thousand,  in 
contrast  with  forty  in  the  Rhondda  Valley,  a  mining 
area,  where  the  women  do  not  work  in  the  mines. 

v.  japan's  pivotal  location 

It  is  natural  for  us  to  turn  now  to  the  stage  on  whicn 
the  Japanese  people,  with  the  endowments  we  have 
described,  are  called  upon  to  play  their  part.  We  shall 
find  that  in  Japan’s  natural  location  and  economic  re¬ 
sources  there  are  both  assets  and  liabilities  to  be  taken 
into  account  in  forecasting  the  development  and 
influence  of  the  nation. 

The  isolated  location  of  the  Island  Empire,  sur¬ 
rounded  on  all  sides  by  stormy  seas,  has  been  a  strong 
defense.  Conquerors  on  the  mainland  have  cast  cove¬ 
tous  eyes  upon  the  Islands,  but  the  only  serious  attempt 
at  conquest  ended  in  ignominious  failure.  No  less  a 
conqueror  than  Kublai  Khan  sent  an  armada  to  subdue 
them  in  the  thirteenth  century ;  but  the  valor  of  the 
Japanese  defense — and  the  timely  breaking  of  a  severe 
storm — wrecked  the  fleet  and  sent  the  survivors  home 
in  disgrace.  It  is  partly  to  this  immunity  to  outside 
B- Jap 


i 


26  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

attack  that  the  Japanese  owe  the  fact  that  their  royal 
line  has  continued  unbroken  for  at  least  fifteen  hundred 
years. 

Commercially  and  strategically,  the  location  of 
Japan  is  unique.  She  stands  like  a  door-keeper  to  all 
eastern  Asia,  where  one  third  of  the  world’s  inhabitants 
live,  a  population  equaling  that  of  all  Europe  and 
North  America.  In  that  same  area  are  the  world’s 
largest  untapped  stores  of  iron,  coal,  and  precious 
minerals,  timber,  fish,  furs,  rubber,  and  lumber;  besides 
wheat  fields  and  pastures  in  Siberia  and  Mongolia 
comparable  with  those  of  Canada  and  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  A  glance  at  the  map  shows  the  vantage  point 
occupied  by  Japan :  she  is  on  the  shortest,  or  great  circle 
route,  from  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  to  the  ports  of  Asia,  an  inevitable  coaling 
and  watering  station;  her  ice-free  harbors  are  almost 
equidistant  from  China,  Manila,  Siberia,  and  Alaska. 

The  Japanese  feel  flattered  to  have  their  country 
called  the  “England  of  the  Orient,”  and  there  are 
manifest  resemblances :  picturesque  islands  in  a  tem¬ 
perate  climate,  immune  from  conquest,  yet  command¬ 
ing  the  trade  routes  to  a  rich  continent;  blessed  with 
the  coal  and  harbors  and  sea-loving  men  required  for 
a  great  shipping  industry.  Like  England,  too,  Japan 
has  a  long  start  of  her  continental  neighbors  in  the 
development  of  machine  industry  and  of  capitalistic 
enterprise. 

It  might  even  be  argued  that  greatness  has  been 
thrust  upon  Japan  by  virtue  of  her  location  as  the 
middle  term  between  two  continents.  Given  peace  and 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  27 

reasonable  enterprise,  Japan's  prosperity  should  con¬ 
tinue  indefinitely  as  a  by-product  of  the  growth  of  the 
commerce  and  industry  of  her  neighbors  on  both  sides 
of  the  Pacific. 

No  longer  do  the  prophetic  sentences  uttered  by 
Theodore  Roosevelt  twenty  years  ago1  sound  like 
rhetoric:  “The  Mediterranean  era  died  with  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  America.  The  Atlantic  era  is  now  at  the, 
height  of  its  development  and  must  soon  exhaust  the 
resources  at  its  command.  The  Pacific  era,  destined 
to  be  the  greatest  of  all,  is  just  at  its  dawn.”  The 
economic  aftermath  of  the  World  War  has  made  this 
prophecy  regarding  the  Pacific  Basin  seem  more  credi¬ 
ble.  Continental  Europe,  chaotic  and  impoverished, 
may  recover  a  measure  of  prosperity  within  a  genera¬ 
tion,  but  her  erstwhile  preeminence  in  industry  and 
trade  is  apparently  being  lost  to  America  and  Japan, 
who  will,  in  time,  be  powerfully  reinforced  by  China. 
They  command  an  unparalleled  combination  of  ad¬ 
vantages  :  easy  access  to  raw  materials  and  vast  unde¬ 
veloped  markets,  technical  skill,  cheap  labor,  and 
abundant  capital.  A  poet  might  call  this  combination 
the  triumphal  arch  of  economic  supremacy,  and  in  that 
arch,  by  virtue  of  her  very  location,  Japan  is  destined 
to  be  an  important  stone. 

VI.  LIMITED  RAW  MATERIALS 

But  Japan  has  certain  serious  limitations.  While 
she  has  easy  access  to  raw  materials,  she  is  notably 
deficient  in  coal,  iron,  and  cotton  in  her  own  territory. 
As  Eckel  points  out,  this  will  inevitably  handicap  the 


28  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

Japanese  in  the  industrial  race.*  Japan's  known  coal 
reserves  are  only  eight  billion  tons,  slightly  less  than 
Spain’s,  and  only  one  two-hundred-and-fiftieth  of 
America’s,  or  one  twenty- fourth  of  Great  Britain’s. 
“Though  sufficient  for  current  Japanese  uses,  it  does 
not  seem  to  justify  either  in  quality  or  quantity  any 
hope  that  it  will  be  the  basis  of  a  very  extensive  export 
trade,  either  in  coal  itself  or  in  heavy  manufactured 
commodities.”  The  small  supply  of  iron  ore  in  Japan 
is  another  handicap. 

In  the  light  of  these  facts  the  strenuous  efforts  made 
by  the  Japanese  to  gain  control  of  the  large  coal  and 
iron  deposits  in  Manchuria,  Shantung,  and  Siberia  are 
perfectly  intelligible.  In  South  Manchuria,  the  Fushun 
colliery  is  especially  rich.  On  the  Yangtse  River  the 
Japanese,  in  partnership  with  the  Chinese,  control  the 
important  Hanyehping  Iron  Mills.  In  1921,  raw 
cotton  had  to  be  imported  from  America  and  India  to 
the  value  of  $220,000,000,  which  was  twenty-seven 
per  cent  of  all  imports.  It  has  rightly  been  observed 
that  Japan’s  dependence  on  America  for  raw  cotton 
and  machinery  would  make  even  extreme  militarists 
hesitate  long  before  urging  a  war  against  America. 

The  wealth  of  Japan  increased  fabulously  during 
and  just  after  the  World  War.  In  place  of  adding 
$90,000,000  a  year  to  her  debt,  as  she  had  been  doing 
even  in  normal  times,  her  sudden  profits  on  foreign 
trade  enabled  her  to  redeem  a  large  portion  of  her 
foreign  loans  and  to  increase  her  gold  holdings  to  one 
billion  dollars,  a  six-fold  increase  in  six  years.  Her 
*  Eckel,  E.  C. :  Coal ,  Iron  and  War,  p.  341.  Henry  Holt,  1920. 


ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  JAPANESE  29 

national  wealth  swelled  from  sixteen  to  forty-three 
billions  between  1913  and  1921,  while  the  national 
debt  increased  only  about  one  billion — a  striking  con¬ 
trast  to  the  trend  in  most  Western  nations.* 

The  wide  distribution  of  wealth  is  indicated  by  the 
Postal  Savings  Bank  depositors,  twenty-four  million 
persons,  with  deposits  aggregating  nearly  $500,000,- 
000  in  1921,  as  compared  with  $96,000,000  in  1915. 
In  1920  the  capitalization  of  new  companies  was 
$2,492,000,000,  fourteen  times  greater  than  in  1913. 
But  it  is  important  to  add  that  since  April,  1920,  Japan 
has  been  passing  through  a  severe  depression,  due  to 
a  market  glutted  with  goods  turned  out  by  manufac¬ 
turers  who  blindly  ignored  the  fact  that  the  wartime 
shortage  in  the  Occident  was  being  supplied  by  the 
Occident  itself  and  that  occidental  manufacturers  were 
again  prepared  to  compete  for  the  Chinese  and  South 
Asian  markets.  In  1917  her  excess  of  exports  over 
imports  was  $284,000,000,  but  in  1920  and  1921  the 
exports  were  less  than  imports  by  $180,000,000.  The 
doubled  cost  of  living  caused  wide  distress,  for  wages 
lagged  behind  and  all  the  efforts  of  the  authorities 
were  powerless  to  effect  much  improvement.  Banks 
and  companies  failed  by  the  score,  and  speculators  who 

had  become  millionaire  spendthrifts  overnight  went 

•<* 

bankrupt  with  equal  speed.  The  only  thing  that  saved 
the  big  silk  industry  from  utter  disaster  was  the 
Government’s  loan  of  a  large  sum  to  a  general  holding 
company  which  limited  output  and  kept  up  prices. 
Meanwhile  the  cotton  goods  trade  also  had  slumped, 

*  From  Japan  \ Advertiser ,  Feb.  23,  19 22. 


30 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


and  in  the  opinion  of  Japanese  capitalists  like  Baron 
Dan,  the  Japanese  mills  cannot  hope  much  longer  to 
compete,  in  the  cheaper  grades,  with  Chinese  and 
British  mills. 

Even  so  brief  a  survey  of  the  economic  resources  of 
the  Japanese  people  shows  that  their  grave  handicaps 
are  not  counterbalanced  solely  by  virtue  of  nearness  to 
the  raw  materials  and  markets  of  Asia.  Hard  work, 
skill,  honest  workmanship — -in  other  words,  stamina, 
technique,  and  character — will  be  indispensable.  Some 
discerning  Japanese  publicists  and  industrialists,  real¬ 
izing  that  character  will  be  the  deciding  factor,  have 
advocated  the  Christian  faith  as  a  last  resort.  They 
acknowledge  that  the  old  faiths  have  been  proved  inad¬ 
equate  and  that  many  of  the  Christians  whom  they 
know  have  the  character-assets  which  the  situation 
demands. 

In  this  first  chapter  we  have  confined  our  attention 
to  the  simplest  factors  in  the  Japanese  ensemble,  the 
characteristics  of  the  people  and  their  natural  and 
economic  resources.  These  may  be  called  the  elemental 
“raw  materials/''  Whether  they  shall  provide  the 
foundations  of  a  powerful  nation  and  whether  they 
shall  be  used  for  worthy  ends  or  not  depends  on  those 
group  purposes  and  activities  which  are  to  be  described 
in  the  following  chapters. 

Note — See  Appendix  I,  for  supplemental  material  to  accompany 
each  chapter  of  the  book.  Appendix  II  contains  a  brief  bibliog¬ 
raphy  of  the  more  recent  and  the  more  readily  obtainable  books 
on  Japan.  Those  books  that  might  well  be  secured  for  a  limited 
reference  library  are  placed  first  in  the  respective  lists. 


II 


Militarism,  Reaction,  and  Liberalism 

“Japan  is  a  second  Prussia”  is  the  verdict  which 
trips  from  the  tongue  of  the  average  Occidental  who 
likes  ready-made,  clean-cut  opinions.  And  if  he  is 
reminded  of  Burke's  remark  that  it  is  preposterous 
to  indict  an  entire  nation,  he  will  refer  to  the  ex- 
Kaiser’s  vision  of  Japan  at  the  head  of  the  “yellow 
peril”  hordes  of  Asia  or  to  shallow"  works  like  The 
Rising  Tide  of  Color  and  The  Flower  of  Asia.  Such 
books  arrogantfy  assume  that  the  white  races  were 
born  to  have  and  to  hold  dominion  over  all  lesser 
breeds,  and  that  it  is  presumptuous  for  Japan  to  build 
up  an  army  and  resist  the  Caucasian  with  his  own 
weapons.  A  good  case  can  be  made  out  to  prove  that 
militarism  has  been  supreme  in  Japan  in  both  ancient 
and  recent  times.  But  the  point  at  issue  is  this :  Is 
Japan  becoming  more  militaristic  or  less  militaristic 
and  reactionary?  In  answering  this  question,  full 
account  must  be  taken  of  the  steady  thrust  of  the 
common  people  upward  into  the  seats  of  power. 

In  the  first  chapter  we  tried  to  take  a  cross-section 
of  certain  characteristics  of  the  Japanese  people;  in 
this  chapter  we  shall  depict  forces  in  action  and  showr 
how  old  characteristics  and  groupings  and  institutions 
are  being,  not  only  modified,  but  transformed  as  a 
result  of  the  new  conceptions  of  individual  worth 
and  obligation  implanted  by  Christian  and  occidental 
thought.  In  Japan  as  in  Western  lands  has  broken 
out  the  struggle  between  the  governing  and  dominant 


32 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


few  and  the  mass  of  the  people,  the  governed  but  no 
longer  submissive  many,  the  long,  hard  fight  to  depose 
militarv  ideals  and  enthrone  liberal  and  humane  ideals. 

l.  THE  BREAK  WITH  FEjJDALffSM  AND  ISOLATION* 

Japan  came  into  the  family  of  nations  fifty  years 
ago  with  a  big  handicap.  For  ages  she  had  been 
brought  up  by  the  rod  and  the  strait-jacket  of  feudal¬ 
ism,  and  she  has  had  a  hard  time  learning  how  to 
behave  in  a  family  where  self-government  is  the  rule. 
Under  feudalism  the  samurai,  or  knights,  held  all  the 
power  and  the  common  people  did  all  the  work, 
although  they  outnumbered  the  samurai  nineteen  to 
one.  The  common  folk  were  very  common  indeed,  for  a 
samurai  could  with  impunity  abuse  them  and  even  cut 
them  down  with  his  broadsword  for  a  fancied  offence. 
There  were  no  newspapers,  no  representative  assem¬ 
blies,  no  schools  for  the  common  people  except  as 
some  of  the  priests  taught  a  fraction  of  the  children 
in  intermittent  temple  schools.  Christianity  was  pro¬ 
scribed,  and  only  one  school  of  Confucianism  could 
be  publicly  taught — that  which  justified  the  Tokugawa 
Shogunate*  and  frowned  on  revolution.  Yet  even 
such  an  autocracy  had  its  merits :  for  two  hundred 
and  sixty  years  peace  and  security  were  maintained 
and  justice  was  administered  with  an  iron  hand. 

*  The  Shoguns  were  originally  generalissimos  under  the  Em¬ 
peror,  but  gradually  they  usurped  the  actual  functions  of 
government  and  made  the  Emperor  a  figure-head.  The  Toku¬ 
gawa  Shogunate  (1600-1867)  developed  the  system  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  early  foreign  representatives,  like  Commodore 
Perry,  supposed  the  Shogun  to  be  in  fact  the  Emperor. 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  33 


Such  was  the  situation  when  the  Tokugawa  regime 
and  feudalism  were  overthrown  and  the  Emperor  was 
restored  to  actual  power  and  the  modernization  of  the 
nation  was  set  about  as  impetuously  as  if  to  make  up 
for  the  two  centuries  of  marking  time.  The  greatness 
of  the  task  can  be  better  realized  if  we  try  to  imagine 
what  England  would  have  faced  if  she  had  been  tight- 
sealed  from  the  time  of  King  James  I  to  Queen 
Victoria,  or  what  the  United  States  would  have  be¬ 
come  if  America  had  been  cut  off  from  all  contact 
with  Europe  from  the  landing  at  Plymouth  Rock 
to  the  Civil  War. 

But,  nothing  daunted,  the  Japanese  girded  up  their 
loins  and  attempted  the  impossible,  and  the  measure 
of  their  success  is  the  most  impressive  evidence  of 
their  caliber  and  of  their  large  potentialities  for  weal 
or  woe. 

The  most  surprising  thing  about  the  comparatively 
bloodless  Revolution  or  Restoration  of  1867-8  was 
the  sudden  emergence  of  a  group  of  young  statesmen 
to  guide  the  Empire  into  the  new  day.  In  place  of  the 
cautious,  precedent-mongering  aristocrats  who  had  but 
lately  predominated  in  the  councils  of  the  Tokugawa 
Regency,  a  band  of  unknown  youths,  most  of  them 
of  lower  samurai  rank,  sprang  forth,  and,  having 
solidified  the  royalist  clans  behind  them,  boldly  began 
to  modernize  and  liberalize  a  fossilized  autocracy. 
Fortunately,  the  -Emperor  was  young,  inexperienced, 
and  tractable,  and  the  nobles  around  him,  like  Iwakura, 
San  jo,  and  Kido,  were  either  progressives  themselves 
or  shrewd  enough  to  fall  in  line  with  the  ruling  party. 


34 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


Ito  and  Inouye,  among  the  younger  leaders,  had  drunk 
deep  of  English  liberalism,  for  they  had  run  away  to 
England  in  the  early  sixties,  even  though  leaving 
Japan  was  prohibited  on  pain  of  death;  and  still  others 
had  studied  the  Bible  with  the  first  missionaries  at 
Nagasaki,  or  had  read  Grotius,  the  Christian  interna¬ 
tional  jurist  of  Holland.  Accordingly,  they  decided 
early  in  1869  that  the  first  step  towards  a  liberal  state 
was  an  Imperial  Proclamation  or  Oath  announcing 
that  Japan  had  resolved  to  seek  progress  and  pursue  it. 
The  chief  articles  of  this  “Charter  Oath”  were  these : — 

1.  A  representative  deliberative  assembly  shall  be 
formed  and  all  measures  decided  by  public  opinion. 
»«•««« 

4.  All  the  absurd  customs  of  former  days  shall  be 
disregarded  and  the  impartiality  and  justice  mani¬ 
fested  in  the  workings  of  nature  shall  be  adopted  as 
the  basis  of  action. 

5.  Knowledge  and  ability  shall  be  sought  in  all 
quarters  of  the  world  to  the  end  that  the  foundations 
of  the  Empire  may  be  more  firmly  established. 

The  die  was  cast.  The  hermit  nation,  ruled  by 
autocrats  and  their  minions,  had  taken  the  first  momen¬ 
tous  step  toward  liberal  political  institutions  at  home 
and  partnership  with  the  progressive  peoples  of  the 
earth  abroad.  Another  formal  step  was  taken  with 
the  promulgation  of  the  constitution  in  1889  and  the 
actual  opening  of  the  first  “deliberative  assembly” 
in  1890. 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  35 


II.  THE  STRUGGLE  BETWEEN  LIBERALISM 

AND  REACTION 

But  for  us,  as  we  seek  evidence  that  liberalism  will 
ultimately  prevail  in  Japan,  the  most  significant  facts 
are  not  the  edicts  of  the  government,  but  the  voluntary 
activities  of  the  people — the  development  of  the  press, 
the  gradual  creation  of  an  intelligent  public  opinion, 
and  the  tireless  fight  for  freedom  of  speech  and  for 
party  government.  It  is  easy  for  the  tourist  who  visits 
a  session  of  parliament  to  pronounce  it  “a  plaything,” 
“a  soothing-syrup  to  quiet  popular  demands,”  but  the 
careful  student  of  the  facts  finds  abundant  reason 
for  confidence.  The  test  of  progress  is  the  difference 
between  today  and  forty  or  fifty  years  ago:  then,  no 
provincial  or  national  representative  assemblies— 
now,  both;  then,  but  a  handful  of  newspapers  and 
magazines  liable  to  suspension  for  any  utterance  dis¬ 
pleasing  to  the  government — now,  over  two  thousand 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  which  constitute  an  ever- 
swelling  organ  of  public  opinion,  a  veritable  fourth 
estate;  then,  no  political  parties— now,  and  for  twenty 
years  past,  national  parties  which  with  all  their  insta¬ 
bility,  corruption,  and  poverty  of  principle  yet  can 
humble  cabinets  and  make  the  bureaucrats  tremble. 

Political  liberalism  has  had  a  stormy  career  in 
modern  Japan.  It  might  be  graphically  portrayed 
by  a  double  curve  rising  sharply  between  1870  and 
1888,  then  falling  until  about  1897,  and  then  oscil¬ 
lating  until  the  entry  of  America  into  the  World 
War,  when  a  furore  for  democracy  broke  out,  the 


36 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


clamor  for  universal  manhood  suffrage  became  in¬ 
sistent,  and  even  woman  suffrage  began  to  be  more 
than  the  fad  of  a  few  radicals.  During  the  seventies 
and  eighties  works  like  Whalen’s  International  Law , 
Mill  on  Liberty ,  and  Rousseau's  Social  Contract ,  and 
the  study  of  English  and  American  history  made 
progressive  Japanese  youth  ambitious  to  carry  their 
country  at  one  bound  from  feudalism  to  democracy. 
Count  Itagaki,  inflamed  by  French  Revolutionary 
ideals,  led  a  host  of  brave  spirits  in  the  struggle  to 
graft  liberty  and  equality  upon  the  stubborn  stock 
of  an  ancient  conservatism,  and  when  the  inevitable 
reaction  came,  they  gladly  went  to  prison  for  their 
faith. 

Among  those  imprisoned  was  Kenkichi  Kataoka, 
a  fellow-provincial  of  Itagaki.  While  Kataoka  was 
in  prison,  a  missionary  gave  him  a  New  Testament, 
with  the  result  that  he  became  a  Christian.  Years 
later,  when  he  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives,  he  was  accustomed  to  open  each  session 
in  silent  but  unaffected  prayer  and  to  invite  the  ten  or 
fifteen  Christians  in  the  House  to  meet  at  his  home 
for  prayer  and  conference.  It  is  not  strange  that,  in 
his  latter  years,  while  President  of  Doshisha  Univer¬ 
sity,  his  combination  of  fearless  loyalty  to  conviction 
with  saintly  humility  made  an  impression  upon  stu¬ 
dents  and  teachers  comparable  with  that  made  years 
before  by  the  similar  character  of  the  famous  founder 
of  Doshisha,  Dr.  Joseph  Neesima. 

A  point  often  overlooked,  and  indispensable  in  ex¬ 
plaining  the  slow  and  fitful  progress  of  liberalism,  is 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  37 

the  influence  upon  Japanese  policy  of  occidental  na¬ 
tional  policy.  After  the  first  flush  of  enthusiasm  for 
everything  occidental,  the  discerning  Japanese  leaders 
became  convinced  that  unless  the  nation  were  armed 
and  prepared  to  defend  its  rights,  it  was  doomed  to 
be  pillaged  like  China,  and  sooner  or  later  over¬ 
whelmed  by  the  high-handed  European  powers.  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  with  characteristic  thoroughness  they  set 
about  creating  an  army,  a  navy,  and  a  subsidized  mer¬ 
cantile  marine,  and  developing  the  industries  which 
would  make  the  nation  strong  and  respected.  Imper¬ 
ceptibly,  the  group  of  young  leaders  who  engineered 
the  Restoration  and  held  the  helm  of  state  for  thirty 
years  thereafter  grew  more  conservative,  the  well- 
worn  grooves  of  the  ancient  bureaucracy  were  used 
once  more,  only  perfected  along  German  lines,  and  the 
public  school  system  became  the  pliable  instrument 
for  instilling  an  almost  fanatical  nationalism  based  on 
loyalty  to  the  Imperial  House.  Two  foreign  wars 
— against  China  in  1894  and  against  Russia  in  1904 — 
riveted  more  and  more  tightly  the  grip  of  the  new 
military  and  bureaucratic  machine  in  place  of  the 
painfully  evicted  Tokugawa  regime.  The  process 
threatened  to  be  carried  still  further  by  the  World  War. 

It  was  in  the  fall  of  1914  that  Japan  drove  the 
Germans  out  of  Shantung  (without  the  full  consent 
of  China)  and  seized  and  kept  full  control  of  ten  times 
as  much  territory  as  Germany  had  ever  controlled. 
Then  in  May,  1915,  Marquis  Okuma’s  cabinet  thrust 
the  infamous  Twenty-one  Demands  down  China’s 
throat,  though  the  worst  of  them  were  withdrawn 


38 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


when  the  Chinese  Government  was  stiffened  by  the 
indignant  protests  of  its  own  people  and  of  American 
and  British  sympathizers.  The  irony  of  the  situation 
was  that  Premier  Okuma,  a  lifelong  exponent  of  liber¬ 
alism,  had  felt  forced  either  to  resign  or  to  eat  his 
words  and  yield  to  the  tightening  ring  of  military 
imperialistic  influences  around  and  above  him.  Then 
with  the  entry  of  America  into  the  war,  a  veritable 
tidal  wave  of  enthusiasm  for  democracy  swept  over 
Japan  and  compelled  even  reactionaries  either  to  keep 
silent  for  the  moment  or  to  pay  lip  homage  to  the 
popular  watchword.  But  it  is  no  secret  that  up  to 
the  summer  of  1918  the  military  clique  in  Japan  felt 
sure  Germany  was  invincible.  Army  officers  openly 
proclaimed  it  in  lectures  given  in  public  high  schools. 
A  revealing  incident  occurred  in  April,  1918.  The 
Cabinet  entertained  the  members  of  Parliament  at  a 
garden  party,  and  one  of  the  speeches,  by  the  Vice- 
Minister  of  War,  avowed  the  belief  of  the  Minister  of 
War  and  the  General  Staff  in  a  German  triumph.  The 
substance  of  the  speech  was  reported  to  me  later  by  a 
Peer  who  heard  and  openly  controverted  its  arguments. 
Such  sentiments  in  the  Cabinet  explain  the  harsh 
repression  of  free  speech  which  seemed  so  strangely 
inconsistent  with  Japan's  alliance  with  England  and 
with  her  official  protestations  of  devotion  to  the  liberal 
aims  of  America  in  the  War. 

The  moment  that  Germany  had  been  defeated — to 
the  surprise  and  chagrin  of  many  Japanese  mili¬ 
tarists — the  glamour  of  the  military  career  began  to 
fade.  Army  officers  could  110  longer  count  on  having 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  39 

upper  class  parents  offer  their  daughters  in  marriage. 
Soldiers  returning  home  after  completing  the  period 
of  compulsory  service  were  welcomed  by  banners 
reading,  “Congratulations  on  Release  from  Prison,” 
and  the  perpetrators  were  sometimes  arrested.  The 
Imperial  Military  Academy  which  before  the  War 
had  picked  its  students  from  among  thousands  of 
applicants,  in  1919  could  muster  only  no  for  the 
entering  class,  though  the  number  sought  was  200. 
For  a  generation  the  Army  has  been  able  to  attract 
the  brainiest  youths,  but  today  they  pass  it  by  and  turn 
to  business  and  the  professions.  The  quick  response 
of  the  Japanese  militaristic  barometer  to  foreign  ex¬ 
ample  and  pressure  was  once  more  clearly  shown  in 
1920,  after  the  European  powers  had  themselves  be¬ 
trayed  liberalism  at  Versailles,  and  America  had  eaten 
her  words  and  imposed  an  inquisition  on  freedom  of 
speech  and  assemblage.  The  reactionaries  in  Japan 
taunted  the  liberals  with  pinning  their  faith  to  painted 
gods,  the  screws  of  repression  were  again  tightened, 
and  the  militarists  were  given  a  new  lease  of  life. 

What  desperate  measures  some  of  the  extremists 
were  willing  to  employ  during  1920  and  1921  in  order 
to  recover  their  grip  and  stamp  out  liberalism  can  be 
judged  from  these  remarks  attributed  to  a  liberal  and 
labor  leader,  who,  though  a  Christian  and  a  pacifist, 
had  incurred  the  suspicion  of  the  police:  “Some  day 
I  shall  be  assassinated.  In  my  slums  there  are  seven 
hundred  gamblers  who  belong  to  the  ancient  Gamblers'’ 
Guild  of  old  Japan.  Hounded  and  abused  by  the  police 
in  the  past,  the  government  has  now  organized  these 


40 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


gamblers  into  a  recognized  fraternity,  humorously 
called  ‘The  Flower  of  the  Nation/  with  the  sole  pur¬ 
pose  of  using  them  to  combat  the  fight  for  democracy. 
Working  now  with  the  police,  they  are  used  to  choke 
down  unrest  and  check  the  growing  power  of  the 
millions.  The  Old  Order  is  desperate  in  Japan  today.*’ 
Such  methods  as  these  may  be  winked  at  by  the 
“higher-ups,”  but  they  are  generally  resorted  to  by 
over-zealous  lieutenants. 

III.  THE  MISCHIEVOUS  “DUAL  GOVERNMENT” 

In  order  to  realize  the  enormous  obstacles  that 
block  the  progress  of  liberalism,  it  is  important  to  make 
clear  just  how  firmly  entrenched  behind  political  power 
the  reactionaries  and  militarists  have  been  until  very 
lately.  Their  power  has  not  been  built  up  in  a  day. 
Nor  has  it  been  all  evil,  by  any  means.  Ever  since  the 
Restoration  of  1868  the  masterful  pilots  of  the  ship 
of  state  have  been  the  Elder  Statesmen,  a  small  group 
of  brilliant,  patriotic  men  who  distrusted  popular  gov¬ 
ernment  and  labored  incessantly  to  buttress  the  Throne 
behind  an  omnipresent  bureaucracy  on  the  one  side  and 
an  omnipotent  army  on  the  other.  No  premier  could 
be  appointed  or  kept  in  power  against  their  will.  If 
the  Parliament  became  obstreperous,  it  was  dissolved 
by  the  Emperor  at  their  behest.  If  popular  protests 
against  a  minister  or  a  government  bill  became  over¬ 
whelming,  they  would  advise  a  concession  here  or 
there,  but  never  did  they  yield  on  the  “grand  strategy” 
of  Imperial  policy.  Cabinets  came  and  went — conser- 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  41 


vative,  liberal,  and  even  party-controlled — but  the 
Elder  Statesmen  remained. 

Their  power  mystified  the  uninitiated  Occidental, 
and  few  of  the  Japanese  themselves  tried  to  analyze  it. 
But  now  that  Prince  Yamagata  and  the  other  giants 
among  the  Elder  Statesmen  have  died,  and  the  only 
two  survivors  of  the  original  group  are  in  their  dotage, 
the  secret  of  their  power  has  become  clear.  It  rested 
first  upon  their  sagacity  and  patriotism.  They  served 
the  Empire  with  unswerving  devotion  and  superb  skill. 
And  it  rested  also  upon  their  control  of  the  General 
Staff  and  the  powerful  army  behind  it. 

The  General  Staff  gradually  became  the  super¬ 
government.  No  matter  who  was  premier,  the  Min¬ 
isters  of  War  and  the  Navy,  as  agents  of  the  General 
Staff  and  the  Elder  Statesmen,  controlled  all  major 
policies.  After  the  victory  over  Russia  in  1905,  the 
General  Staff  waxed  bolder  than  before.  Its  agents 
abroad,  supported  from  the  Army’s  “Secret  Fund,” 
repeatedly  stood  for  policies  diametrically  opposed  to 
the  Foreign  Office  and  its  diplomatic  representatives. 
Thus  was  developed  what  Japanese  liberals  have 
dubbed  “the  dual  government”  or  the  “super-govern¬ 
ment.”  In  1909  the  system  was  legalized  by  an 
Imperial  Ordinance,  instigated  by  the  conservatives 
and  militarists,  providing  that  the  Ministers  of  War 
and  the  Navy  in  the  Cabinet  should  be  responsible 
only  to  the  Emperor  and  not,  like  the  other  ministers, 
to  the  Premier.  The  result  is  that  if  the  General 
Staff  sees  fit  it  can  prevent  a  cabinet  being  formed 


42 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


or  can  cause  its  downfall  by  refusing  to  let  any  officer 
become  or  remain  Minister  of  War. 

It  seems  to  be  emphatically  clear  that  most  of  the 
acts  of  the  Japanese  Government  during  the  past 
decade  and  more  which  have  shocked  and  displeased 
Japanese  liberals  and  Japan’s  well-wishers  in  occi¬ 
dental  lands,  have  been  due  to  this  anomalous  “dual 
government.”  The  harsh  regime  in  Korea,  the  ex¬ 
ploiting  policy  in  China,  the  stupid  interference  in 
Siberia,*  the  diatribes  against  America  in  the  jingo¬ 
istic  press,  can  all  be  laid  at  its  door. 

This  dual  system  has  been  perceptibly  weakened 
by  various  events  during  the  last  few  years.  But  it 
cannot  be  ended  until  the  annulment  of  the  Ordinance 
of  1909  shall  have  been  forced  by  such  a  growth  of  the 
progressive  forces  as  shall  overwhelm  the  forces  of 
reaction,  ultra-nationalism,  and  militarism.  That  day 
is  coming  more  rapidly  than  the  reactionary  oligarchy 
thinks,  for  public  opinion,  the  mind  of  the  intelligent 
middle  class,  is  steadily  gaining  in  power. 

IV.  THE  PART  PLAYED  BY  CHRISTIAN  LEADERS 
AND  THE  RESPONSE  OF  THE  PEOPLE 

In  all  lands  the  Christian  movement  has  been  the 
nurse  of  political  as  well  as  religious  prophets.  Japan 
is  no  exception.  Every  Christian  congregation  has 
been  a  training  school  in  equality,  parliamentary  pro¬ 
cedure,  and  representative  government. 

*  It  cost  nearly  a  billion  yen,  over  2,500  Japanese  lives, — and 
more  Russian, — and  hurt  the  foreign  relations  and  internal  morale 
of  Japan.  The  value  of  a  yen  is  normally  fifty  cents  gold. 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  43 

In  the  creation  of  a  liberal  public  opinion,  a  promi¬ 
nent  part  has  been  borne  by  Christians  or  men  and 
women  inspired  by  the  Christian  ideals  of  personality, 
liberty,  and  brotherhood.  It  was  Professor  Yoshino, 
elder  in  a  Congregational  Church  and  President  of  the 
Tokyo  Imperial  University  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  who,  for 
several  years,  denounced  in  the  metropolitan  press  and 
in  his  own  monthly  organ  the  iniquities  of  the  Jap¬ 
anese  military  regime  in  Korea.  It  was  he  also  who 
boldly  exposed  that  tap-root  of  military  imperialism, 
the  “dual  government.” 

Still  another  Christian  leader  in  the  fight  against 
reaction  is  Hon.  D.  Tagawa,  M.  P.,  who,  because  of 
criticisms  levelled  against  the  very  undemocratic  Elder 
Statesmen  (the  unofficial  advisors  of  the  Emperor), 
was  in  1918  convicted  and  imprisoned  on  a  technical 
charge  of  lese  majeste.  But  today  he  is  back  in  Par¬ 
liament  and  is  one  of  the  leading  spirits  in  the  Japan 
League  of  Nations’  Association,  at  whose  head  is  the 
eminently  respected  Prince  Tokugawa,  a  son  of  the  last 
Shogun  and  one  of  the  three  delegates  to  the  Wash¬ 
ington  Conference. 

The  most  influential  liberal  in  Parliament  is  Hon. 
Yukio  Ozaki,  a  lifelong  admirer  of  British  institutions 
and  of  Christian  social  ideals.  His  wife  is  a  Christian. 
It  was  he  who,  when  Minister  of  Education  in  1898, 
raised  a  storm  about  his  head  by  inadvertently  drop¬ 
ping  in  an  address  words  to  the  effect,  “supposing  by 
way  of  illustration  that  Japan  were  a  republic.”  He 
had  to  resign,  but  his  lips  were  not  sealed.  In  1918 
he  published  in  Japanese  the  volume  since  translated 


44  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

under  the  title,  The  Voice  of  Japanese  Democracy, 
a  bold  argument  on  behalf  of  a  democratized  monarchy 
for  Japan  akin  to  England’s.  In  1920  and  ’21  he 
waged  a  platform  campaign  for  disarmament  which 
won  extraordinary  popular  support.  The  genuineness 
of  that  support  is  confirmed  by  the  action  of  the  largest 
labor  union  in  the  Empire,  the  Yuaikai,  demanding 
complete  disarmament,  although  they  were  quite  aware 
that  eighty  thousand  of  their  comrades  in  the  ship¬ 
yards  might  thereby  be  thrown  out  of  work.  A  pic¬ 
turesque  anecdote  illustrates  Mr.  Ozaki’s  courage  and 
his  powers  of  persuasion:  During  his  speaking  tour 
on  behalf  of  disarmament,  he  was  aroused  from  sleep 
one  night  by  a  flashlight  held  by  a  desperado  who 
was  also  waving  a  sword  above  his  head.  He  coolly 
and  civilly  accosted  the  intruder,  turned  on  the  elec¬ 
tric  light,  and  then  invited  his  astounded  visitor  to 
sit  down. 

It  seems  that  the  desperado  was  a  violent  chauvinist 
and  had  intended  to  assassinate  Ozaki  for  his  “unpa¬ 
triotic”  ideas  on  disarmament.  After  a  two  hours’ 
talk,  the  man  left,  a  convert  to  Ozakrs  views,  begging 
to  be  pardoned  for  his  intrusion. 

Another  instance  of  the  invariable  response  of  the 
common  people  to  liberal  ideas,  when  they  are  clearly 
presented,  occurred  in  1920  at  Osaka.  A  scholarly 
advocate  of  Shinto  as  a  potentially  universal  religion, 
with  the  Emperor  of  Japan  at  its  head,  rented  the 
public  hall  for  a  lecture  in  exposition  of  his  doctrines. 
Though  he  was  a  safe  and  sane  patriot  and  a  professor 
in  Tokyo  Imperial  University,  only  a  paltry  two 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  45 

hundred  turned  out  to  hear  him.  A  fortnight  later, 
Professors  Yoshino  and  Onodzuka,  of  the  same  Uni¬ 
versity,  rented  the  same  hall,  and,  though  they  charged 
an  admission  fee,  were  greeted  by  five  thousand 
enthusiastic  auditors  as  they  pleaded  for  democracy 
and  international  cooperation. 

V.  THE  SLOW,  BUT  IRRESISTIBLE,  DEMOCRATIC 

ADVANCE 

But  the  men  in  the  seats  of  the  mighty  in  Japan 
were  little  more  affected  by  these  sentiments  than  a 
“horse's  ear  by  the  east  wind,"  as  the  Japanese  adage 
puts  it.  They  felt  that  Japanese  and  American  inter¬ 
ests  clashed  in  China  and  Siberia  and  that  force  might 
have  to  decide  the  issue. 

Up  to  the  very  opening  of  the  Washington  Confer¬ 
ence  relations  between  America  and  Japan  were 
growing  worse.  Despite  the  interchange  of  friendly 
visits  and  the  efforts  of  broad-minded  groups  in  both 
countries,  the  feeling  between  the  two  nations  grew 
more  strained.  The  “bigger  navy”  advocates  in 
America  were  in  the  ascendant  and  American  espousal 
of  China's  part  was  pronounced.  All  this  played  into 
the  hands  of  the  Japanese  military  imperialists  and 
neutralized  the  arguments  and  pleadings  of  the  liberals. 
In  both  countries  whispers  that  “war  is  inevitable" 
became  more  insistent.  Then,  like  a  giant  parting 
two  fractious  boys,  Secretary  Hughes  made  his  dra¬ 
matic,  self-denying  proposal  to  the  Washington  Con¬ 
ference.  The  thunders  died  away;  the  clouds  were 
dispersed.  The  hands  of  liberals  and  Christians  on 


46 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


both  sides  of  the  Pacific  were  immediately  strength¬ 
ened.  The  good  faith  of  Japan  in  carrying  out  the 
Washington  Agreement  will  be  referred  to  later;  but 
it  is  significant  that  even  while  those  agreements  were 
being  debated  and  the  outcome  was  in  doubt,  the  liberal 
though  repressed  multitudes  in  Japan  were  seizing 
the  occasion  of  Marquis  Okuma’s  funeral,  in  February, 
1922,  to  give  an  imposing  demonstration  of  their  real 
sympathies.  It  is  vividly  described  in  this  letter  from 
a  foreign  observer: 

I  want  to  answer  the  question,  “Is  Japan  militaristic  ?” 
Three  weeks  ago  Marquis  Okuma,  the  incarnation  of  pro¬ 
gress,  died  and  was  buried.  A  week  ago  Prince  Yamagata, 
the  incarnation  of  militarism,  died  and  was  also  buried. 
They  were  both  the  same  age,  eighty-four.  They  had  been 
young  together.  One  kept  progressive,  the  other  turned  reac¬ 
tionary  and  militaristic.  When  Okuma  died,  the  papers  were 
full  of  him  for  a  week:  his  achievements,  his  sayings,  his 
contribution  toward  education,  his  political  career.  There 
was  a  great  public  funeral— paid  out  of  the  people’s  pockets, 
voluntarily,  not  by  the  State.  Vast  crowds  attended  the 
funoral  which  was  held  in  Hibiya  Park,  and  the  whole  city, 
it  seemed,  turned  out  on  the  line  of  march. 

Within  three  weeks,  the  great  reactionary,  Prince  Yam¬ 
agata,  was  buried  also.  It  was  a  State  funeral  this  time, 
and  cost  80,000  yen.  Pie  was  President  of  the  Privy  Council 
and  Field  Marshal  of  the  Army.  The  newspapers  at  best 
damned  him  with  faint  praise.  They  spoke  of  what  he  had 
done  for  his  country  in  the  early  days,  and  if  they  spoke 
of  the  present  at  all,  it  was  to  say  that  he  was  beginning  to 
see  that  his  “militarism”  was  a  mistake.  The  difference  in 
the  size  of  the  crowds  at  his  and  Marquis  Okuma’s  funeral 
was  conspicuous. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  signs  of  the  awakening  of 
the  long  suppressed  common  people  and  their  respon- 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM 


siveness  to  the  guidance  of  liberal  intellectuals,  it  is 
premature  to  expect  their  opinions  to  determine  the 
national  policy  for  two  reasons.  First,  few  of  the  com¬ 
mon  people  or  the  intellectuals  have  a  vote,  the  total 
number  of  voters  being*  3,000,000  out  of  15,000,000 
males  of  voting  age.  The  franchise  requires  the  pay¬ 
ment  of  a  direct  tax  of  at  least  $1.50  a  year  and  few 
qualify.  Secondly,  the  political  parties  are  not  yet 
able  to  determine  major  national  policies,  but  must 
for  the  most  part  be  content  to  worry  and  criticise  the 
powers  that  be.  The  fact  that  it  was  not  till  1918  that 
Mr.  Hara  formed  what  is  termed  “the  first  genuine 
party  cabinet/’  suggests  the  stubborn  inertia  and  active 
opposition  against  party  government,  for  1918  was 
nearly  thirty  years  after  the  establishment  of  the  na¬ 
tional  parliament.  Even  the  Iiara  cabinet  fell  far  short 
of  party  government-— and  for  these  very  vital  reasons : 
the  cabinet  still  remained  solely  responsible  legally  to 
the  Emperor  and  only  nominally  to  the  dominant  party 
in  the  Lower  House;  the  Elder  Statesmen,  the  General 
Staff,  the  Privy  Council,  and  the  Imperial  Diplomatic 
Council  all  exercised  more  decisive  influence  in  weighty 
matters  than  the  cabinet  ;  the  Army  General  Staff  and 
the  Navy  General  Council  could  break  up  the  cabinet 
at  any  moment  by  ordering  the  resignation  of  the  Min¬ 
ister  of  War  or  of  the  Navy  and  refusing  to  let  any 
officer  fill  his  place ;  and  finally,  the  Upper  House  was 
not  controlled  by  the  dominant  party  in  the  Lower 
House,  and  the  Upper  House  could  seriously  obstruct 
the  cabinet's  policy.  Furthermore,  upon  the  assassina¬ 
tion  early  in  1922  of  Premier  Hara  and  the  fall  soon 


48 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


afterward  of  the  cabinet  he  had  formed,  the  present 
non-party  or  “super-party  cabinet/'  under  Premier 
Baron  Kato,  took  its  place,  with  the  rather  unprin¬ 
cipled  acquiescence  of  the  dominant  party  in  the  Lower 
House.  Thus  it  will  be  oppressively  evident  that  even 
after  all  the  years  of  heroic  struggle,  only  the  rudiments 
of  responsible  party  government  have  been  attained. 
But  the  issue  has  been  joined  and  will  be  fought 
through  with  samurai  tenacity. 

VI.  FORCES  WHICH  MAKE  FOR  FURTHER  ADVANCE 

The  extension  of  the  suffrage,  the  rise  of  a  free  press, 
the  democratizing  of  the  Throne,  and  the  pressure  of 
liberal  institutions  and  ideas  from  without — these  four 
potent  influences  will  unite  to  hasten  the  ultimate  tri¬ 
umph  of  liberalism.  Let  us  consider  these  influences 
briefly. 

i.  Agitation  for  universal  suffrage 

The  cry  for  universal  manhood  suffrage  used  to  be 
merely  a  political  campaign  catchword,  but  in  recent 
years  it  has  been  taken  up  in  earnest  by  intellectuals 
and  labor  leaders,  so  that  in  all  probability  the  suffrage 
will  be  extended  within  a  few  years  by  lowering  the 
financial  qualification,  thereby  including  many  more  of 
the  urban  population,  artisans,  and  “white-collared 
poor"  (clerks,  professional  men,  and  low-paid  offi¬ 
cials),  the  very  groups  upon  whom  liberalism  has  the 
strongest  hold.  Then  the  admission  of  some  of  the 
women  to  the  franchise  will  follow  in  due  time.  A 
straw  showing  how  the  wind  is  blowing  was  the 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  49 


removal  in  1921  of  the  prohibition  against  the  attend¬ 
ance  of  women  upon  political  meetings. 

2.  Rising  power  of  the  press 

The  non-partisan  press  is  today  more  potent  to  shape 
government  policy  than  the  political  parties,  and  on  the 
whole  its  influence  is  being  used  to  promote  progressive 
policies.*  When  international  problems  arise  it  is  more 
narrowly  patriotic  than  the  independent  press  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  America,  yet  it  has  more  than  once  rebuked 
the  chauvinists  and  cheered  the  liberal  forces.  This  has 
been  true  of  a  number  of  the  great  journals,  for  ex¬ 
ample,  in  their  criticism  of  interference  in  China  and 
Siberia,  in  their  demand  for  reduction  of  the  Army  as 
well  as  of  the  Navy,  in  their  advocacy  of  appointing 
civilians  instead  of  military  men  to  govern  the 
colonies,  and  in  their  (belated)  denunciation  of 
oppression  in  Korea.  And  on  domestic  issues  they  are 
practically  all  aligned  against  the  reactionaries.  In 
Osaka,  joining  hands  with  the  Christians,  they  op¬ 
posed  the  corrupt  prefectural  authorities  and  the  rich 
vested  interests  who  in  1913  were  insisting  upon  allow¬ 
ing  the  rebuilding  of  the  licensed  vice  quarters  inside 
the  city.  They  have  agitated  for  the  extension  of  the 
suffrage,  for  the  ending  of  police  persecution  of  labor 
unions,  and  for  freedom  of  discussion  even  of  “dan¬ 
gerous  thoughts”  like  socialism,  syndicalism,  and 
democracy,  which  are  anathema  to  standpatters  and 
militarists. 

*  See  The  Press  and  Politics  in  Japan,  by  Kisaburo  Kawabe, 
Ph.  D.,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1921.  An  interesting  and 
authoritative  presentation. 


So 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


3.  The  unbending  of  the  Mikado 

The  Imperial  House,  the  incarnation  of  conserva¬ 
tism,  has  kept  pace  with  the  people.  The  Prince 
Regent,  who  is  now  practically  Emperor,  not  only 
permitted,  but  acknowledged  the  joyous  shouts  of 
the  people — an  unheard  of  license,  and  when  the 
Prince  of  Wales  visited  Japan,  the  Prince  Regent 
broke  all  the  hoary  precedents  by  accompanying  him 
to  a  public  theatrical  performance.  When  two  noted 
American  Christian  leaders  were  presented,  the  Prince 
Regent  and  the  Princess  asked  them  eager  and  in¬ 
telligent  questions  instead  of  uttering  the  stiff  phrases 
prescribed  by  former  imperial  etiquette.  It  is  evident 
that  the  Prince  Regent  was  deeply  affected  by  all  that 
he  saw  during  his  European  tour  of  1921,  especially 
by  the  simplicity  and  bonhomie  of  King  George  and 
the  Prince  of  Wales. 

This  responsiveness  of  the  Imperial  House  to  the 
example  of  the  English  Royal  Family  is  illustrative 
of  the  sensitiveness  of  the  entire  nation  to  the  pres¬ 
sure  of  liberalism  from  without.  It  has  at  times  been 
positively  startling  to  note  the  immediate  rise  or  fall 
of  the  liberal  barometer  in  Japan  according  as  a  liberal 
or  a  reactionary  policy  prevailed  in  America  and 
England. 

4.  Influence  of  occidental  example 

What  an  obligation  this  places  on  British  and  Amer¬ 
ican  liberals,  especially  upon  Christians !  I  well  re¬ 
member  how  crestfallen  Japanese  liberals  were  on 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  51 

several  occasions  when  Western  nations  seemed  bent 
on  a  selfish  imperial  policy  toward  the  Far  East  and 
liberals  in  those  countries  seemed  impotent  to  check 
it.  This  was  the  case  in  1898  when  England  and 
America  made  no  move  to  hinder  Russia,  Germany, 
and  France  in  their  seizure  of  Chinese  territory,  just 
after  these  three  powers  had  hypocritically  compelled 
Japan  to  give  back  Liaotung  Peninsula  on  the  pious 
plea  of  the  integrity  of  China.  On  the  contrary, 
England  then  seized  the  harbor  of  Wei-Hai-Wei  in 
order  to  keep  even  with  Russia  and  Germany.  It 
was  the  case  again  in  1920  when  the  bigger  navy 
advocates  in  the  United  States,  even  in  the  face  of 
“the  fourteen  points”  and  the  hardly  finished  fight 
against  Prussian  militarism,  insisted  that  Japanese 
aggressions  on  China  and  other  perils  required  the 
spending  of  hundreds  of  millions  on  battleships  and 
on  fortifications  in  Hawaii,  Guam,  and  the  Philip¬ 
pines.  These  policies  immediately  alarmed  even 
friendly  Japanese  and  gave  the  militarists  an  un¬ 
answerable  argument  for  a  bigger  army  and  navy 
and  an  aggressive  foreign  policy.  On  the  other  hand, 
every  victory  won  for  liberty  and  the  common  people, 
every  act  of  international  unselfishness  in  the  Oc¬ 
cident  is  immediately  cabled  to  the  Japanese  press 
and  read  by  millions. 

VII.  LIVING  UP  TO  THE  WASHINGTON  AGREEMENTS 

Thank  God  that  the  Washington  Conference  went 
far  to  neutralize  these  sinister  tendencies  and  to  give 
renewed  power  and  courage  to  Japanese  liberalism. 


52  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

Like  an  electric  storm  it  cleared  the  clouds  from  both 
sides  of  the  Pacific.  Secretary  Hughes’  brave  words 
substituted  frankness  for  finesse,  confidence  for  dis¬ 
trust.  The  difficulties  and  dangers  have  not  all  been 
dispelled,  by  any  means,  but  the  spirit  necessary  for 
their  solution  has  been  generated.  Now  it  remains 
for  the  people  of  good-will  in  both  hemispheres  to 
see  that  the  right  spirit  is  maintained  at  all  costs. 

What  definite  steps  has  Japan  taken  toward  ful¬ 
filling  the  agreements  signed  at  Washington  and  to¬ 
ward  a  more  liberal  policy  at  home  and  abroad? 
Favorable  indications  are  not  wanting.  In  the  first 
place,  Admiral  Baron  Kato,  the  chief  representative 
at  Washington,  was  made  premier  soon  after  his 
return  home,  and  being  a  naval  man  he  has  been 
better  able  than  a  civilian  premier  to  control  the 
military  groups.  The  fidelity  with  which  he  has 
insisted  on  living  up  to  the  Washington  pacts  has 
surprised  and  gratified  liberal  minded  men  on  both 
sides  of  the  Pacific.  The  Army  as  well  as  the  Navy 
has  been  promptly  reduced.  The  Japanese  garrisons 
have  been  withdrawn  from  the  Chinese  interior  points, 
where  they  had  stayed  several  years  against  China’s 
protest;  the  Japanese  troops  in  Siberia  were  all  with¬ 
drawn  on  October  31,  1922,  and  in  December  the  last 
Japanese  soldier  left  Shantung.  On  January  1,  1923, 
Japan  turned  over  to  China  the  post-offices  which  for 
many  years  had  given  Japan  points  of  vantage. 

Japan's  record  in  Shantung  has  been  bad,  but  not 
unlike  the  record  of  certain  powers  in  Persia,  Haiti, 
and  Africa.  It  has  seemed  worse  because  it  gave 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  53 

Japan  a  foothold  for  what  bade  fair  to  become  a 
system  of  underground  control  of  her  great  neighbor’s 
affairs.  But  the  signing  at  Washington  of  the  Shan¬ 
tung  Agreement  and  the  other  self-denying  ordinances 
regarding  China  marked  a  sharp  change  in  Japanese 
policy  and  an  opportunity  for  China  to  become  master 
of  her  own  fate. 

By  the  Shantung  Agreement  Japan  promised  to 
restore  territorial  and  administrative  rights,  also  the 
railways  and  mines,  in  return  for  a  monetary  com¬ 
pensation  equivalent  to  the  rights  acquired  and  the 
investments  made  by  Japan.  This  agreement  is  being 
carried  out.  It  is  a  signal  triumph  for  all  the  parties 
concerned.  To  be  sure,  valuable  properties  and  busi¬ 
ness  advantages,  some  of  them  morally  questionable, 
were  secured  by  Japanese  interests  during  the  five 
years  of  the  occupation,  and  the  compensation  de¬ 
manded  very  likely^  was  exorbitant;  but  China  has 
become  used  to  such  tactics  by  foreigners,  and  has 
ample  reason  to  rejoice  over  the  main  provisions  of  the 
Shantung  settlement.  An  article  by  the  English  naval 
expert,  C.  Bywater,  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  *  reveals 
how  cleverly  the  Japanese  naval  authorities  in  1921 
rushed  to  completion  the  fortification  of  outlying 
islands  in  anticipation  of  the  Washington  Conference. 
It  is  not  at  all  improbable,  but  it  is  just  what  military 
authorities  would  try  to  do  in  any  country.  That 
is  their  business.  It  does  indicate  that  militarism 
has  a  stubborn  and  unregenerate  heart  everywhere, 
but  it  does  not  disprove  or  weaken  the  fact  that  the 


*  February,  1923. 


54 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


swelling  volume  of  popular  opinion  in  Japan  is  anti- 
militarist  and  bent  on  maintaining  peace. 

VIII.  REFORMS  IN  KOREA 

In  Korea,  likewise,  Japan  lias  followed  a  more 
liberal  policy  since  1921,  when  a  high-minded  retired 
naval  officer  was  made  Governor-General.  The  torture 
of  prisoners  has  practically  ceased,  the  military  gen¬ 
darmerie  have  been  replaced  by  a  civilian  police,  the 
number  of  Korean  officials  has  been  increased  and 
their  status  raised,  the  spying  interference  with  Chris¬ 
tians  and  other  suspects  has  been  somewhat  abated. 

The  Ordinance  of  1915,  which  forbade  religious 
instruction  and  worship  in  all  schools  enjoying  any 
governmental  privileges,  was  so  modified  in  1922  as 
to  allow  complete  religious  freedom  in  the  higher 
Christian  institutions.  Then,  as  if  to  accentuate  the 
friendliness  of  the  Government  General  toward  Chris¬ 
tianity  and  the  desire  to  blot  out  the  memory  of  the 
persecuting  attitude  of  the  preceding  administration, 
a  Christian  Japanese  was  made  Civil  Governor.  Late 
in  1922,  an  eminent  American  visitor  summed  up  his 
impressions  of  conditions  in  Korea  in  these  words: 

An  impartial  observer  is  struck  by  the  outstanding 
changes  and  substantial  gains  here.  There  is  a  new 
security  that  Korea  never  knew  under  her  own  corrupt  and 
grafting  emperor  and  officials.  There  is  a  new  material 
development,  a  new  opportunity  for  advancement,  a  new 
sanitation,  the  introduction  of  more  scientific  farming,  a 
new  industrial  development,  the  replanting  of  forests,  bet¬ 
ter  courts,  much  needed  prison  reforms,  more  honest  official 
administration,  and  more  material  prosperity  than  Korea 
had  known  under  her  own  government.  No  unprejudiced 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  55 

observer  can  deny  that  the  material  gains  of  the  first  decade 
of  Japanese  rule,  from  1910  to  1920,  are  remarkable.  The 
population  has  increased  from  some  13,000,000  to  over  17,- 
000,000.  The  trade  has  multiplied  seven-fold.  Over  500,000 
pupils  are  in  the  over-crowded  schools  of  all  grades,  while 
the  children  in  the  government  schools  have  increased  three¬ 
fold  in  the  decade.  The  number  of  commercial  companies 
has  increased  from  152  to  544;  the  factories  show  an  eight¬ 
fold  increase  from  252  to  some  1900.  The  mining  of  the 
country  has  increased  fourfold.  The  Koreans  are  undeni¬ 
ably  more  prosperous  today  than  they  were  ten  years  ago. 
They  have  lost  a  large  measure  of  liberty,  but  they  have 
gained  a  new  discipline,  a  new  patriotism,  a  new  courage, 
and  a  new  national  spirit. 

The  Koreans  are  a  splendid  people,  hearty,  courageous, 
independent,  with  their  spirit  tempered  by  much  persecution 
and  former  injustice.  The  majority  of  the  pastors  and  lay 
leaders  with  whom  I  talked  had  been  in  prison.  They 
counted  this  a  greater  honor  than  any  university  diploma. 
This  new  courage,  enterprise,  and  patriotism  were  unknown 
by  the  masses  under  their  own  government.  Side  by  side  a 
new  and  liberal  Japan  and  a  new  Korea  with  free  and 
courageous  spirit  are  developing. 

There  is  an  increased  measure  of  liberty  of  thought,  of 
speech,  and  of  the  press;  the  inauguration  of  local  self- 
government;  the  participation  of  Koreans  in  the  district  and 
national  government;  a  creditable  increase  in  education;  the 
abolition  of  whipping,  and  of  the  former  forcible  attempt  to 
assimilate  the  Koreans;  concessions  to  the  national  senti¬ 
ment  of  the  people,  and  a  manifest  effort  on  the  part  of 

Japanese  officials  for  conciliation  and  friendship . 

Full  freedom  was  permitted  for  open-air  meetings  which  were 
attended  by  from  three  to  seven  thousand  people  every  night. 
I  talked  freely  of  world  affairs,  of  recent  revolutions  and 
the  new  republics  of  Europe;  of  political,  social,  and  in¬ 
dustrial  advance,  and  of  the  rising  demand  for  democracy, 
for  social  justice,  and  for  liberty  throughout  the  world. 

As  these  paragraphs  are  being  penned  early  in 
1923,  the  reports  from  Japan  itself  indicate  that  the 


56 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


battle  for  freedom  of  speech  and  association  has  not 
yet  been  won.  The  police  authorities,  however,  are  far 
more  tolerant  than  in  the  years  1919  to  1921,  when 
several  Christian  friends  of  mine  were  imprisoned  for 
patriotic  words  or  acts  misconstrued  as  “radical” 
or  treasonable.  Considering  the  recent  hysterical 
measures  against  freedom  of  speech  and  of  press  even 
in  the  United  States,  one  does  not  wonder  greatly 
at  the  juggling  of  the  Japanese  police  and  courts 
with  the  much  weaker  guarantees  of  the  Japanese 
Constitution. 

IX.  DANGER  POINTS  STILL  REMAINING 

The  prospects  of  liberalism  in  Japan  are  of  vital 
concern  to  peoples  other  than  the  Japanese  themselves, 
for  unless  liberal  ideas  and  policies  continue  to  gain, 
the  probability  of  difficulties  and  wars  with  ether  na¬ 
tions  is  greatly  heightened.  Even  with  a  powerful 
liberal  trend  in  both  Japan  and  America,  for  example, 
the  danger  of  serious  difference  is  by  no  means 
remote.  Three  of  the  roots  of  misunderstanding 
and  possible  trouble  are  China,  Korea,  and  Japanese 
immigration  into  the  United  States  and  the  British 
Dominions.  Let  us  glance  at  each  of  these. 

1.  The  Washington  agreements  cleared  away  most 
of  the  powder  trains  in  the  Chinese  situation.  They 
were  of  inestimable  value  for  Japan,  for  they  checked 
her  before  she  had  gone  beyond  recovery  down  the 
slippery  path  of  aggression  and  imperialism  toward 
China.  But  it  would  be  folly  to  be  blind  to  the  pos¬ 
sible  recurrence  of  danger  in  the  not  distant  future. 


S':''  V? 


/  ■ 


■mmm- 


rnmm 


:  ; 


TOYOHIKO  KAGAWA  AND  HIS  LITTLE  “FLOWERS”  IN  THE  SLUMS  OF  KOBE 


THE  NEGISHI  NEIGHBORHOOD  HOUSE  IN  TOKYO.  FROM  LEFT  TO  RIGHT 
ARE  MR.  KOBAYASHI,  MR.  PRICE,  THE  SETTLEMENT  DOCTOR,  A  TEACHER, 
A  RELIEF  WORKER,  AND  THE  MANAGER.  BELOW,  IS  ONE  OF  THE  KIN¬ 
DERGARTENS  OF  THE  SETTLEMENT 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  57 


Japan's  population  is  certain  to  increase  not  less  than 
600,000  a  year;  and  she  may  not  he  able  to  develop 
industries  at  home  fast  enough  to  absorb  the  surplus. 
Heretofore  emigration  has  been  slight — less  than  a 
million,  all  told,  since  1880.  But  it  may  be  expected  to 
increase,  toward  China  especially.  The  rich  undevel¬ 
oped  resources  of  China  will  inevitably  attract  Japan¬ 
ese  capital  and  technical  skill.  Meanwhile  occidental 
capital  and  technicians  will  be  pouring  into  China. 
Clashes  of  interest  may  occur  any  time.  China  her¬ 
self  will  require  decades  to  evolve  a  strong  govern¬ 
ment  and  meanwhile  will  be  poorly  equipped  to  con¬ 
trol  those  clashes  of  interest  and  assertions  of  rights 
between  foreign  groups  which  so  easily  lead  to  war. 
Manifestly,  self-control,  respect  for  international  law, 
and  racial  tolerance  will  all  need  to  be  strengthened 
among  the  Japanese  and  the  other  nationalities  con¬ 
cerned  if  serious  trouble  is  to  be  averted.  These 
virtues  do  not  thrive  in  the  soil  of  commercialism  and 
nationalism.  They  are  engendered  best  by  the  Spirit 
of  Christ. 

2.  Turning  to  Korea,  we  find  that  the  danger  of 
international  trouble  is  negligible.  The  cruel  meas¬ 
ures  adopted  by  some  of  the  officials  to  crush  the  Inde¬ 
pendence  Uprising  of  1919  rightly  aroused  indignation 
in  foreign  lands,  and  they  only  fanned  the  flame  of 
Korean  patriotism.  But  the  more  just  and  generous 
attitude  which  marks  the  present  administration,  if 
continued,  will  give  satisfaction  abroad  and  ensure 
tranquility  in  Korea.  The  Japanese  also  have  an 
unsavory  ancient  record  to  live  down  in  Korea,  reach¬ 


es  -.Tap 


58 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


ing  back  to  the  invasion  of  1587.  The  invaders  are 
said  to  have  cut  off  the  ears  of  thousands  of  Korean 
captives  and  shipped  them  to  Kyoto,  where  an  “Ear 
Mound”  stands  to  this  day  as  presumptive  evidence 
of  the  deed.  To  be  sure,  such  barbarity  was  common 
in  those  days.  It  is  an  augury  of  a  new  public  con¬ 
science  that  deputations  of  Kyoto  citizens,  led  by 
Christians,  have  in  recent  years  repeatedly  urged  the 
local  authorities  to  open  the  “Ear  Mound”  and,  after 
proving  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  tradition,  to  raze 
it  level  with  the  ground.  The  multitude  of  Americans 
and  Britishers  who  are  supporting  missionary  work 
in  Korea  will  watch  closely  the  trend  of  Japanese 
policy  there,  but  will  rejoice  heartily  if  it  shall  stand 
for  liberty  and  justice  and  shall  recognize  that  Chris¬ 
tianity  is  the  best  ally  of  every  good  government. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  suggest  that  Americans  and 
Britishers  can  understand  the  ordinary  Japanese  point 
of  view  about  Korea  if  they  will  recall  their  own 
national  attitude  toward  the  Philippines  and  Ireland, 
for  example.  At  the  same  time,  it  should  be  remem¬ 
bered  that  the  deputation  sent  by  the  Japanese  Federa¬ 
tion  of  Churches  to  investigate  conditions  during  the 
Uprising  publicly  criticised  the  Government,  and  that 
scores  of  professors  and  publicists,  not  all  of  them 
Christians  by  any  means,  denounced  the  Government. 
Professor  Yoshino  has  declared  that  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  students  of  Japan  would  vote  to  give  Korea 
complete  autonomy. 

This  attitude  toward  a  conquered  people  is  not  indig¬ 
enous  to  Japan.  It  is  unquestionably  the  fruit,  directly 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  59 

and  indirectly,  of  Christian  ideals,  of  the  triumph 
of  liberalism  over  military-imperialistic  ideals.  The 
Japanese  are  not  the  only  race  who  have  been  slow 
to  learn  how  to  rule  a  conquered  people.  If,  as  seems 
likely,  the  large  tolerance  and  sympathetic  imagination 
which  have  made  the  British  preeminent  as  colonial 
rulers  are  traceable  partly  to  Christian  influence,  then 
the  advance  of  Christianity  among  the  Japanese  may 
be  expected  to  better  their  rule  in  Korea  and  Formosa. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  significant  that  Christian  officials  in 
Korea,  such  as  Chief  Justice  Watanabe,  and  Christian 
Americans  in  the  Philippines,  succeed  where  others 
fail.  There  appears  to  be  a  very  close  connection 
between  their  success  and  their  Christian  appreciation 
of  the  worth  and  dignity  of  every  man  of  whatever 
race. 

3.  The  last  potential  cause  of  international  difficulty 
to  be  mentioned  is  immigration  into  occidental  lands. 
To  be  specific,  let  us  consider  the  “California  Ques¬ 
tion.”  Here  again,  the  fair  thing  is  to  try  to  see  the 
other  side’s  point  of  view.  To  the  Japanese  mind 
these  are  some  of  the  facts  in  the  case :  Japan  is  densely 
populated,  and  it  takes  hard  work  to  extract  a  living 
from  the  ever  shrinking  allotment  of  land  available 
for  growing  numbers  of  people.  California,  with  the 
same  area  as  Japan,  has  only  one  sixteenth  as  many 
people;  large  tracts  of  land  are  undeveloped;  and 
Japanese  are  able  to  enrich  both  themselves  and  their 
white  neighbors  by  farming  more  intensively  than 
white  men  will  do.  The  Japanese  immigrants  are 
intelligent,  industrious,  law-abiding,  and  temperate. 


6o 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


Their  children  go  to  school,  and,  according  to  the 
investigations  of  Professor  Terman,  the  psychologist, 
of  Stanford  University,  they  show  an  intelligence 
superior  to  the  average  Portuguese  immigrant's  child, 
and  not  far  below  that  of  the  average  California  white 
child  of  Nordic  descent.*  During  the  World  War, 
over  500  Japanese  volunteers  from  Hawaii  and  the 
Pacific  Coast  states  and  provinces  fought  in  the  Ameri¬ 
can  and  Canadian  armies. 

There  are  among  the  Japanese  in  California  dull- 
witted,  narrow-minded  men  interested  only  in  acquir¬ 
ing  a  competence.  Many  of  them  came  to  the  Pacific 
Coast  from  Hawaii,  but  Americans  should  remember 
that  the  first  immigrants  wanted  in  Hawaii  from  Japan 
were  strong-backed  laborers  to  work  in  the  cane  fields. 
They  were  rounded  up  in  droves  by  emigration  com¬ 
panies.  Most  of  them  had  never  gone  beyond  their 
A  B  C’s  in  Japan,  and  in  Hawaii  had  enjoyed  scant 
opportunities  for  self-improvement.  It  is  true,  the 
older  people  have  clung  to  a  crude  Buddhist  faith  and 
have  mingled  little  with  white  folk,  but  white  folk 
have  not  made  intercourse  easy,  and  even  Christian 
Californians  have  done  little  to  give  them  true  religion. 
As  for  the  Japanese  born  in  America,  they  rapidly 
desert  Buddhism  and  ancestral  customs. 

So  much  for  the  Japanese  point  of  view. 

What  may  be  called  the  “California  point  of  view” 
is  by  no  means  shared  by  all  Californians.  It  may 
be  thus  outlined.  The  Japanese  are  unassimilable 
because  they  are  radically  different  in  physique,  in 
*The  New  Republic,  Dec.  27,  1922. 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  61 


customs,  religion,  and  political  habits.  They  do  not 
treat  women  as  we  do,  but  make  them  work  in  the  fields 
like  men.  They  own  allegiance  to  a  “second  Prussia/’ 
and  even  the  Japanese  born  in  America  would  fight 
against  the  Stars  and  Stripes  in  case  of  war.  They 
are  clannish  and  form  “colonies.”  They  do  not  often 
undercut  white  workmen,  but  they  work  longer  hours 
and  are  so  efficient  that  the  average  white  man  cannot 
compete.  They  are  likely  to  break  a  contract  if  it  goes 
against  them.  They  are  so  thrifty  and  multiply  so 
rapidly  that  in  a  few  decades  they  will  own  a  large 
part  of  the  State.  The  South  has  one  race  problem; 
we  don’t  want  another.  Even  though  we  admire  many 
Japanese,  we  are  convinced  that  they  and  we  had 
better  not  intermarry  or  try  to  live  together  in  large 
numbers.  The  Chinese  we  like  better  because  they 
know  their  place  and  keep  humble,  while  the  Japanese 
know  they  are  as  good  as  white  men  and  want  to  be 
treated  accordingly.  The  Chinese  have  a  passive 
government  behind  them,  while  the  Japanese  govern¬ 
ment  is  alert  and  aggressive  and  teaches  every  subject 
that  he  must  make  Japan  the  greatest  power  on  earth. 
So  our  slogan  is,  respect  the  Japanese,  but  keep  them 
far  from  us. 

Much  has  been  said  in  rebuttal  and  in  support  of 
these  points  of  view.  But  without  going  exhaustively 
into  the  question,  attention  should  be  drawn  to  a  few 
important  considerations. 

Granted  that  the  Japanese  are  as  objectionable  as 
the  bitterest  “anti-Japanese”  assert,  has  American 
treatment  of  them  been  worthy  either  of  American  or 


6  2 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


Christian  principles?  President  Roosevelt  built  on 
those  principles  when,  in  1907,  he  made  the  “Gentle¬ 
men’s  Agreement,”  by  which  Japan  consented  to  stop 
the  emigration  of  laborers  to  the  United  States.  This 
Agreement  has  been  well  observed,  though  partially 
neutralized  by  the  influx  of  Japanese  brides.  But  be¬ 
ginning  with  the  passage  of  the  Heney-Webb  Land 
Bill  in  May,  1913,  the  California  and  other  coast 
legislatures  have  passed  discriminatory  laws  which 
have  deeply  offended  Japanese  feeling  and  have  threat¬ 
ened  to  work  hardship  and  injustice.  The  situation 
has  been  relieved  by  the  fact  that  two  of  the  California 
laws  have  been  declared  invalid  by  the  federal 
Supreme  Court. 

The  net  result  of  the  agitation,  legislation,  and 
recrimination  of  the  last  ten  years  has  been  to  irritate 
the  relations  between  the  two  races  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
and  to  bring  the  two  nations  dangerously  near  to  a 
rupture.  Fortunately,  the  Washington  Agreements 
have  removed  the  bogey  of  Japan  as  a  “second  Prus¬ 
sia.”  Few  intelligent  Americans  now  entertain  fears 
of  a  Japanese  invasion  of  America  or  of  open  conflict 
with  Japan  anywhere.  Conditions  today  are  more 
favorable  than  for  ten  years  to  start  afresh  and  find 
a  just  solution  of  the  question. 

What  are  some  of  the  principles  of  such  a  solution: 

Both  Japanese  and  American  investigators  are 
agreed  that  further  immigration  of  laborers  and  near¬ 
laborers  should  be  entirely  prevented,  and  also  that 
the  influx  of  Japanese  brides  should  be  rapidly  reduced, 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  63 


so  as  to  lower  greatly,  if  not  to  stop,  the  increase  of 
the  Japanese  population. 

The  Japanese  already  here  should  be  treated,  not 
only  with  justice,  but  with  courtesy,  and  made  to  feel 
welcome.  If  the  notion  of  buying  or  freezing  them 
out  is  abandoned,  then  it  is  surely  good  policy  to  do 
everything  possible  to  Americanize  them. 

Americanization  involves  the  implanting  of  new 
ideals  and  ways  of  living.  The  Japanese  residents 
are  as  easy  to  Americanize  as  any  South  Europeans. 
Anyone  who  knows  personally  young  Japanese  born 
and  educated  in  America  laughs  at  the  absurdity  of 
the  assertion  “once  a  Japanese,  always  a  Japanese/’ 
They  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  breezy  young 
Americans,  for,  like  all  first  generation  immigrant 
children,  they  tend  to  be  more  than  “one  hundred  per 
cent  Americans/’  Their  parents  often  complain,  just 
like  immigrant  parents  from  Europe,  “We  can’t  hold 
our  children  loyal  to  the  old  ideas.  They  don’t  care 
about  their  fatherland  and  dislike  to  speak  their 
mother  tongue.” 

The  master-keys  to  Americanization  are  the  Eng¬ 
lish  language  and  Christianity.  Whatever  measures 
therefore,  can  be  taken  to  these  ends  will  directly 
further  a  spiritual  assimilation  which  is  real  American¬ 
ization.  It  is  commonly  admitted  that  as  soon  as 
Japanese  residents  become  Christians,  the  chasm  be¬ 
tween  them  and  the  average  American  is  bridged. 

The  problem  in  its  legal  and  political  aspects  is 
primarily  national,  and  only  secondarily  state  or  prov- 


64 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


incial.  Accordingly,  a  new  “Gentleman’s  Agree¬ 
ment”  might  well  be  adopted,  on  the  basis  of  a  fresh 
and  dispassionate  inquiry  into  the  situation. 

More  energetic  efforts  should  be  made  by  the 
churches,  Christian  Associations,  and  other  agencies 
of  good-will  to  befriend  and  to  Christianize  the  Japan¬ 
ese  transient  visitors  as  well  as  the  Japanese  residents. 
Every  dollar  spent  on  missionary  work  in  Japan 
would  have  its  “spiritual  purchasing  power”  greatly 
increased  if  a  Christian  instead  of  a  neutral  or  anti- 
Christian  impression  were  made  on  Japanese  visitors 
to  our  shores. 

X.  THE  RESPONSIBILITY  OF  OCCIDENTAL  CHRISTIANS 

Our  excursions  into  the  Korean  and  immigration 
problems  may  seem  to  have  been  far  afield,  but  those 
problems  are  intimately  bound  up  with  liberalism  and 
reaction  in  Japan.  For  example,  one  of  the  stumbling 
blocks  in  the  way  of  liberalism  and  of  Christianity 
alike  in  Japan  is  the  less  than  Christian  attitude  of 
Americans  in  the  handling  of  the  Japanese  situation 
on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Nothing  heartens  and  strength¬ 
ens  militarists  in  Japan  more  than  anti-Japanese  leg¬ 
islation  and  un-Christian  treatment  of  Japanese  in 
America. 

This  brings  us,  in  conclusion,  to  a  consideration  of 
three  other  ways  in  which  Christians  in  England  and 
America  can  help  to  build  up  true  liberalism  in  Japan. 

(i)  They  can  strive  more  doggedly  to  make  the 
life  of  the  American  and  British  peoples  and  the 
policies  of  their  governments  measure  up  to  the  high 


t 


MILITARISM,  REACTION,  AND  LIBERALISM  65 


requirements  of  a  truly  Christian  liberalism  at  home 
and  abroad.*  (2)  They  can  stop  “knocking”  Japan 
as  entirely  and  incurably  reactionary  and  treacherous 
and  can  recognize  and  encourage  the  growing  forces 
of  liberalism  in  Japan,  exercising  patience  with  its 
slow  gains,  in  view  of  the  heavy  odds  against  it. 
(3)  They  can  do  all  in  their  power  to  promote  the 
Christianization  of  the  Japanese  people.  Is  it  not  as 
clear  as  day  that  no  vital  liberalism  worthy  of  the 
name  can  long  prevail  in  any  land  unless  it  is  fed  by 
the  living  springs  of  Christian  conviction  and  char¬ 
acter?  The  ramifications  of  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  al¬ 
ready  in  Japanese  life  give  proof  that  wherever  it 
prevails,  human  personality,  regardless  of  its  trap¬ 
pings,  is  valued,  liberty  without  license  is  enjoyed,  and 
the  sacrifice  of  self-interest  for  the  good  of  the  whole 
is  exemplified.  Jesus  Christ  was  the  world’s  first  great 
liberal  and  His  increasing  sway  in  Japan  is  the  only 
sure  guarantee  of  her  becoming  and  remaining  a 
liberal  state. 

*Not  a  little  has  already  been  accomplished  in  the  United  States 
by  the  Federal  Council’s  Commission  on  Relations  with  the 
Orient,  under  the  lead  of  Dr.  Sidney  Gulick. 


Ill 


Social  Problems  and  Christian  Solutions 

I.  LIGHTS  AND  SHADOWS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EXPANSION 

The  Japanese  boast  that  their  land  has  never  been 
conquered.  But  though  they  know  it  not,  industrial¬ 
ism  has  already  subjugated  half  the  nation.  Old  Japan 
had  her  troubles  over  food  and  wages,  and  there  were 
occasional  uprisings  against  hard  masters,  but  com¬ 
pared  with  the  welter  of  the  strife  today  between  the 
owners  and  the  workers  it  was  the  difference  between 
a  mill-pond  and  the  whirlpool  rapids  of  Niagara.  And 
this  revolution  has  all  happened  within  forty  years. 

i.  Industrializing  a  feudal  nation 

As  late  as  1876  a  host  of  samurai  were  still  bitterly 
resenting  the  opening  of  Japan  to  “foreign  bar¬ 
barians”  and  were  rebelling  against  the  passing  of  the 
good  old  times  when  they  were  fed  and  clothed  by 
their  lords  and  could  while  away  their  lives  in  honor¬ 
able  idleness  or  in  light  administrative  duties.  They 
continued  to  breathe  out  threatening  and  slaughter 
against  the  “ foreign  devils/7  on  whom  they  laid  much 
of  the  blame  for  upsetting  the  old  order  and  causing 
their  hard  plight.  Haughtily  they  declared,  “An 
eagle  will  starve  to  death  rather  than  become  a  seed- 
eater;  so  a  two-sworded  samurai  will  never  stoop  to 
work  at  a  trade  or  in  business.”  But  such  boasts 
filled  no  rice-bowls,  and  the  samurai  soon  followed  the 
rest  of  the  people  in  a  feverish  effort  to  master  the 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


67 


technique  of  modern  trade  and  machine  industry  in 
order  at  any  cost  to  make  money  and  catch  up  with 
the  nations  of  the  West.  The  race  havS  been  going 
on  now  for  forty  years,  and  it  is  evident  to  the 
Japanese  themselves  as  well  as  to  outside  observers  at 
what  a  killing  pace  they  have  been  running.  The 
questions  spontaneously  come  to  one’s  lips,  “How 
much  longer  can  they  keep  it  up?  Will  the  fierce 
struggle  for  wealth  through  industrialism  set  up  an 
economic  feudalism  which  will  reverse  the  trend 
foward  liberal  political  institutions  and  so  divide  and 
demoralize  the  people  as  to  unfit  them  for  playing  a 
large  and  constructive  part  in  the  world’s  life?” 

A  strong  case  could  be  made  for  the  contention  that 
industrialism  has  been  more  of  a  curse  than  a  blessing 
to  Japan.  It  is  not  unnatural  to  wish  that  the  quiet 
life  of  old  Japan  could  be  restored.  Think  of  peaceful 
agricultural  Japan  in  1880,  when  the  cities  looked  like 
swollen  villages,  with  their  smokeless  air  and  low 
buildings,  and  then  behold  the  great  cities  of  today, 
with  their  forests  of  chimneys  and  the  rushing  trolley 
cars  and  automobiles  and  the  gaunt,  reinforced  con¬ 
crete  structures.  The  transformation  is  vividly 
reflected  in  that  part  of  Osaka  known  as  the  “old 
concession”  where  foreigners  lived.  When  I  first  saw 
it  in  1898,  it  was  like  a  section  of  some  American 
residential  town,  but  today  the  old  dwellings  have 
either  been  turned  into  offices  or  torn  down  to  make 
way  for  factories,  with  smoke  that  makes  the  sun 
look  like  a  red  moon.  Industrialism  has  come  to  stay. 

The  actual  growth  in  the  number  of  industrial 


68 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


plants  in  the  country  bears  out  this  impression.  In 
1883  there  were  only  125  modern  factories,  employing 
25,000  laborers.  Today  there  are  30,000  plants  and 
they  employ  over  2,000,000  men,  women,  and  children. 

Shipping  and  railway  transportation  have  also 
forged  ahead  with  the  vast  industrial  expansion.  Japan 
has  not  only  built  the  largest  man-of-war  afloat,  dis¬ 
placing  40,000  tons,  but  is  turning  out  merchantmen  of 
25,000  tons.  Her  merchant  marine  on  August  1,  1922, 
numbered  791  steamers  of  more  than  1,000  tons  and 
their  total  tonnage  was  2,779,837.  The  pennants  of 
her  chief  steamship  companies  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
ports  of  every  continent.  Most  of  the  two  billion 
dollars  worth  of  goods  which  represent  the  total  of 
Japan’s  import  and  export  trade  is  carried  in  Japa¬ 
nese  bottoms.  Despite  all  the  engineering  difficulties 
created  by  steep  mountains,  torrential  floods,  earth¬ 
quakes,  and  tidal  waves,  Japan  has  built  7,500  miles 
of  steam  and  1,400  miles  of  electric  railways  in  an 
area  less  than  California. 

In  a  word,  the  whole  nation  has  risen  up  and,  with 
breathless  intensity,  striven  to  obey  the  injunction  of 
the  modern  economic  and  educational  prophet, 
Fukuzawa,  who  for  thirty  years  preached  in  trumpet 
tones  this  gospel:  “Young  men,  poverty  and  ignorance 
are  hobbling  your  country.  Master  Western  science, 
make  money,  and  free  her!” 

2.  The  cost  in  terms  of  life 

The  abandon  Avith  which  this  counsel  has  been 
followed  even  by  conservative  nobles  and  stoical 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  69 

samurai,  until  lately  contemptuous  of  wealth,  has 
brought  dismay  to  those  who  shudder  to  see  the  old 
handicrafts  and  the  quaint  charm  of  the  landscape 
sacrificed  to  the  god  of  industry.  The  cost  of  the 
industrial  revolution  in  terms  of  human  life  and 
character  has  been  even  more  stupendous  than  the 
cost  in  terms  of  beauty  and  simplicity.  We  may 
by  picturing  the  contrast  between  a  typical  village 
visualize  what  the  change  is  meaning  to  the  masses 
girl  of  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  who,  in  the  security 
of  home,  helped  her  mother  at  the  loom  and  about 
the  household  work,  and  on  the  other  hand,  a  present- 
day  factory  girl  in  one  of  the  vast  cotton  mills. 

Even  though  we  resist  the  temptation  to  idealize 
the  past  and  to  blacken  the  present,  the  antithesis  is 
shocking.  In  the  old-time  village,  girls  could  at  least 
expect  safe  homes,  nourishing  food,  fresh  air,  variety 
in  work,  visits  with  friends  and  relatives,  the  hilarious 
fun  connected  with  festivals,  the  moral  influences  of 
village  custom,  shrine,  and  temple,  the  ancestor  wor¬ 
ship  in  the  home,  early  marriage,  and  simple  domestic 
duties. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  girls  lured  from  country 
homes  to  the  average  spinning  mill  by  stories  of  the 
pleasures  and  high  wages  of  the  city  are  generally 
doomed  to  a  life  of  disillusionment,  drudgery,  and 
temptation.  Three  quarters  of  the  girls  in  these  mills 
are  housed  in  barrack-like  company  dormitories.  Each 
girl’s  quarters  consist  of  one  mat  (three  by  six  feet)  or 
at  most  two,  in  a  room  shared  with  many  other  girls, 
and  in  some  cases  the  sharing  extends  even  to  the 


70 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


bedding,  so  that  the  night  shift  will  have  hardly  left 
their  quilts  when  the  day  shift,  exhausted,  tumbles 
in  under  them.  The  air  is  laden  with  the  dust  of 
a  thousand  looms.  Twice  a  month  they  have  a  day 
off,  when  they  may  be  allowed  to  spend  their  slender 
surplus  at  the  movies  or  theaters  or  in  carousals  or 
in  wandering  about  the  streets.  The  monotony  and 
high  pressure  of  factory  work  leave  them  so  jaded 
that  only  highly  spiced  diversions  will  satisfy.  The 
lack  of  play,  outdoor  exercise,  and  proper  food,  and 
the  exposure  to  contagious  diseases  undermine  stamina 
and  leave  them  weakened  for  motherhood,  if  not 
chronic  invalids.  In  place  of  the  control  of  elders 
and  the  restraint  of  rigid  customs,  they  are  left  too 
often  to  the  mechanical  supervision  of  a  dormitory 
matron  and  the  wiles  of  a  designing  foreman.  They 
become  sophisticated  and  blase.  Coarse  pleasures  and 
hardened  companions  sear  the  conscience.  The  whole 
setting  of  life  is  dwarfing  and  demoralizing. 

Lest  these  statements  be  discounted  as  mere 
rhetoric,  it  is  well  to  quote  from  a  careful  address 
made  in  1921  before  an  association  of  upper  class 
Japanese  women,  by  Mr.  Bunji  Suzuki,  an  influential 
labor  leader  and  an  educated  man  of  conservative 
temper.  He  said: 

The  condition  of  young  women  employed  in  the  spinning 
mills  is  particularly  shocking.  Of  some  700,000  womer 
employed  in  them  today  over  75  per  cent  must  live  in  dor¬ 
mitories  furnished  by  the  mill  owners,  in  dark  and  dismal 
common-rooms  without  any  ventilation.  Bathing  and  toilet 
facilities  are  better  imagined  than  described.  They  all  sleep 
together  in  these  huge,  prison-like  places.  Two  or  three  girls 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  71 

sleep  together  on  one  large  mattress  supplied  by  the  factory, 
and  in  summer  or  winter  only  one  thin  inadequate  covering 
is  given  them.  The  girls  go  to  bed  with  their  clothes  on  in 
winter  in  order  to  keep  warm.  In  summer  they  lie  around  in 
varying  stages  of  nakedness,  in  hot,  ill-smelling  rooms,  with¬ 
out  a  breath  of  fresh,  decent  air.  As  they  work  in  day  and 
night  shifts,  these  mattresses  are  in  use  without  rest,  day  and 
night. 

j.  Conditions  in  the  mines 

When  industrialism  is  mentioned,  we  think  mostly 
of  factories,  but  modern  mines  are  almost  as  much 
a  product  of  machine  industry.  Conditions  in  the 
Japanese  mines  are  even  worse  than  in  the  spinning 
mills.  When  the  Rev.  T.  Kagawa,  the  pastor  and 
social  worker,  investigated  the  coal  mines  of  Kyusiu 
in  1918,  his  discoveries  were  so  damaging  both  to  the 
mine  owners  and  to  the  government  inspectors  that 
he  was  forbidden  to  publish  parts  of  his  report.  Not 
only  men,  but  mothers  with  babies  on  their  backs, 
plunge  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth  and  work  in 
noisome  shafts  for  a  pittance  barely  sufficient  to  live 
on.  Equally  unwholesome  are  the  moral  and  intel¬ 
lectual  conditions  under  which  they  are  compelled  to 
live  and  under  which  their  children  are  brought  up. 

Ponder  this  arraignment  by  Mr.  Suzuki  of  the 
treatment  of  women  in  the  mines : 

In  1917,  the  number  of  women  employed  in  the  mines  of 
Japan  was  70,000.  Today  that  number  is  greater  by  over 
6o,ooo.  Most  of  them  are  between  sixteen  and  twenty  years 
of  age,  and  they  work  in  the  pits  along  with  the  men.  Very 
few  women  are  employed  in  gold,  silver,  and  copper  mines, 
but  most  of  them  in  the  coal  mines.  Twenty  per  cent  of  all 
the  laborers  in  the  coal  mines  today  are  women.  They  are 


72 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


usually  employed  to  carry  baskets  filled  in  the  pits.  They 
work  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  naked  like  the  men,  wearing 
only  a  little  breech  clout.  There  is  no  ventilation  and  no 
discipline  in  their  surroundings.  They  are  so  like  animals 
that  they  can  hardly  be  called  human.  There  are  other 
women  who  work  outside  the  pits;  their  work  too  is  very 
hard.  But  mines  are  usually  far  away  from  the  villages,  and 
as  the  laborers  do  not  see  many  people  from  outside,  they 
do  not  have  much  chance  to  complain  where  it  will  do  any 
good.  Mine-owners,  therefore,  have  been  successful  in  keep¬ 
ing  stories  of  the  ill-treatment  of  their  women  employees 
very  quiet.  But  those  who  can  read  statistics  realize  from  the 
number  of  still-born  children  and  the  appalling  number  of 
deaths  of  newly  born  children  in  mining  communities,  that 
working  and  living  conditions  in  them  must  be  awful.  At 
the  mines  no  one  makes  complaints  ;  but  these  statistics  cry 
to  heaven  against  conditions  in  mining  districts. 

4 .  Some  general  effects  of  industrialism 

Even  when  all  allowance  is  made  for  the  welfare 
work  undertaken  by  some  of  the  larger  companies 
and  the  kindly  interest  of  some  proprietors  in  their 
employees,  the  state  of  affairs  brought  on  by  the 
whirlwind  expansion  of  industrialism  is  nothing  less 
than  appalling.  This  will  be  clearer  if  we  turn  from 
this  depressing  though  typical  picture  of  the  immediate 
effect  of  factory  and  mine  life  on  the  workers  to 
certain  effects  on  the  nation  at  large  as  shown  by 
certain  well-defined  tendencies. 

The  avalanche  of  migration  from  the  country  to 
the  cities  has  been  marked  in  modern  Japan  as  in 
Western  lands.  While  the  population  of  the  nation 
has  been  growing  at  the  rate  of  i  per  cent  a  year, 
since  1900  the  population  of  the  larger  cities  has 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


73 


leaped  forward  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent 
a  year.  Tokyo  now  numbers  2,300,000,  and  Osaka 
1,400,000,  while  Yokohama,  Nagoya,  Kyoto  and 
Kobe  range  from  500,000  to  700,000. 

As  Mr.  Merle  Davis  points  out,  the  suburban 
expansion  has  been  far  more  striking  than  that  within 
the  city  limits.  During  the  thirteen  years,  1903-1916, 
Tokyo  proper  grew  29  per  cent,  but  the  industrial 
suburbs  grew  415  per  cent.  '‘Extensive  areas,  which 
ten  years  ago  were  planted  to  rice  and  vegetables  or 
were  swept  by  the  tides,  are  now  built  up  in  solid 
blocks  of  factories  and  tenements.”  If  the  Greater 
Tokyo  schemes  of  men  like  Mayor  Baron  Goto  are 
carried  out,  the  city  will  annex  all  these  suburbs, 
which  are  already  inextricably  bound  up  with  her 
life,  and  will  then  have  a  population  of  four  million, 
surpassed  only  by  New  York  and  London.  Obviously, 
these  rapid  shifts  of  population  are  affecting  every 
aspect  of  Japanese  life,  breaking  down  old  safeguards 
and  creating  new  perils. 

The  physical  well-being  of  the  nation  is  also  being 
menaced  by  the  abnormal  conditions  of  life  in  factories 
and  mines,  despite  the  great  strides  made  by  scientific 
medicine  in  Japan.  Hospitals  are  numerous  and  fairly 
well  appointed,  and  there  are  thousands  of  trained 
physicians.  The  public  school  system  and  the  press 
are  seconding  the  efforts  of  the  political  authorities 
and  the  doctors  to  spread  hygienic  knowledge.  But 
all  these  efforts  are  to  a  large  degree  counteracted  by 
the  undermining  of  health  and  the  spread  of  disease 
by  the  conditions  in  the  growing  army  of  industrial 


74 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


operatives.  One  of  the  most  careful  studies  of  this 
sort  is  Dr.  Ishihara’s  monograph  on  the  Health  of 
Women  Factory  Operatives.  In  it  we  find  these 
rather  startling  facts:  Night  work  by  1,350  girls  who 
were  studied  showed  an  average  loss  of  one  and  one- 
fifth  to  two  and  one-half  pounds  during  the  five  day 
period  of  night  labor  and  a  net  loss  of  two  thirds  of 
a  pound  even  after  the  succeeding  five  day  period  of 
daytime  labor.  What  wonder  that  they  so  readily 
fall  victims  to  tubercular  and  nervous  troubles!  In 
1913  the  factories  had  to  recruit  200,000  new  girls 
from  the  country  districts.  The  number  of  recruits 
required  is  said  to  have  grown  to  more  than  300,000 
annually,  a  serious  drain  upon  the  nation's  vital 
resources.  One  would  have  expected  the  General  Staff 
of  the  army  to  have  seen  that  the  weakened  physique 
of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  potential  mothers  in  the 
factories  would  lower  the  birth-rate  and  impair  the 
stamina  of  future  conscripts. 

Out  of  those  annually  recruited,  over  one  third  return 
home  within  a  year,  and  one  sixth  of  these  because 
of  serious  illness.  Tuberculosis  heads  the  list,  and  the 
victims  become  the  carriers  of  disease  to  their  native 
villages.  In  one  case  a  girl  returning  home  with 
tuberculosis  embedded  the  disease  in  her  village  so  that 
thereafter  every  five  years  thirty  persons  died  of  it. 
In  another  village,  out  of  thirty  girls  returning  home, 
twenty  were  ill  and  all  but  four  of  these  had  tuber¬ 
culosis.  Adding  together  the  deaths  of  women  in 
the  factories  and  after  they  returned  home,  the  ratio 
is  nearly  three  times  as  high  as  the  ordinary  death- 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  75 

rate  for  women,  and  higher  than  for  women  in  any 
other  occupation. 

Social  students  and  welfare  workers  agree  that  fac¬ 
tory  life  has  been  a  fruitful  cause  of  juvenile  delin¬ 
quency  and  sexual  immorality.  In  March,  1919, 
there  were  220,222  child  laborers  under  fourteen 
years  of  age  (equivalent  to  thirteen  in  occidental 
countries)  of  whom  121,994  were  girls.  Laborers 
between  fourteen  and  eighteen  years  old  numbered 
722,303,  of  whom  nearly  half  were  girls.  Not  a  few 
of  the  girls  who  tire  of  the  drudgery  and  low  pay  of 
factory  life  are  easily  lured  into  service  as  waitresses 
and  then  descend  by  easy  steps  into  a  life  of  crime  or 
vice.  In  a  volume  on  Industrial  Education,  Mr.  R. 
Unno  states  that  forty-nine  per  cent  of  the  delinquent 
girls  arrested  in  Osaka  during  a  certain  period  had 
been  factory  workers.  Many  of  them  are  ruined 
before  they  leave  the  factory. 

In  still  another  direction  machine  industry  has  had 
far-reaching  consequences.  The  artisans  of  Japan 
are  still  famous  for  their  handiwork,  but  their  skill 
is  waning  before  the  ubiquitous  machine  whose  steel 
fingers  weave  and  hammer  and  carve  what  used  to  be 
the  product  of  human  fingers  and  wonderfully  sharp 
eyes  and  fine  taste.  If  the  psychologists  are  right  in 
holding  that  the  type  of  a  person’s  activity  goes  far 
to  determine  his  character  and  conduct,  then  we  may 
expect  marked  changes  in  the  Japanese  people  because 
of  the  passing  of  craftsmanship  with  its  stimulus  to 
creative  instinct,  individual  variation,  pride  in  work, 
and  artistic  judgment. 


76 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


Industrialism  in  Japan  is  like  a  stream  with  two 
forks,  the  one  sparkling  and  gay,  bearing  gold  and  all 
the  delights  of  modern  convenience  and  luxury,  the 
other  putrid  and  dark  with  the  wreckage  of  human 
beings.  And  they  flow  close  together.  Go  with  me  to 
Kobe  to  look  at  the  mansion  of  a  ship-building  mag¬ 
nate,  the  head  of  a  plant  employing  17,000  men.  He  is 
a  gentleman  of  the  best  blood  and  breeding,  graduated 
from  a  famous  American  University,  a  patron  of  arts 
and  philanthropy.  He  is  not  a  showy  spendthrift. 
His  huge  profits  from  wartime  contracts  have  been 
spent  largely  in  assembling  a  choice  collection  of 
European  art  and  in  bringing  back  to  Japan  the  un¬ 
surpassed  Vever  collection  of  Japanese  prints.  Now 
let  us  walk  a  mile  away  to  that  ante-room  of  hell,  the 
slums  of  Shinkawa,  where  twelve  thousand  human 
beings  swarm.  Open  sewers  and  germ-haunted  ken¬ 
nels  multiply  disease.  Criminals,  beggars,  gamblers, 
and  abandoned  women  are  the  quarter’s  leading 
citizens.  Dirty  children  in  droves  play  and  fight  and 
ape  their  elders  up  and  down  the  goat-path  alleys  as 
though  theirs  was  the  normal  kind  of  life.  These 
slums  represent,  it  is  true,  the  cess-pool  of  Japanese 
industrialism,  but  it  is  a  pool  which  is  incessantly 
replenished  by  the  men  and  women  flung  off  like 
broken  fragments  from  the  fast  flying  wheels  of  the 
economic  mill.  The  Shinkawa  slums  are  duplicated 
in  every  large  city  of  the  country.  In  Old  Japan  there 
were  small  slums,  but  nowadavs  the  stream  of  social 
castaways,  maimed  and  despairing,  disfigures  every 
industrial  center.  All  the  taxes  spent  by  government 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  77 

and  the  gifts  of  philanthropists  for  the  welfare  and 
reform  of  the  submerged  tenth  in  the  slums  and  back 
alleys  are  admittedly  like  plasters  on  a  cancer — power¬ 
less  to  purify  the  poisoned  blood  of  the  system.  Some 
of  the  submerged  population  are  only  the  latest  gen¬ 
eration  of  a  long  line  of  delinquents  and  incompetents, 
but  others  are  of  the  sort  who  could  play  a  humble, 
though  useful,  part  in  a  simpler  and  kindlier  social 
order,  were  they  not  crushed  or  shunted  aside  by  the 
juggernaut  of  a  pitilessly  impersonal  industrialism. 

Machine  tending,  mass  production,  and  bestial  con¬ 
ditions  of  labor  and  life  are  gradually  dehumanizing 
segments  of  Japanese  life.  Some  of  those  finer  powers 
and  sensibilities  which  formed  a  part  of  Japan’s 
aesthetic  and  moral  heritage  are  being  atrophied  by 
disuse  or  destroyed  by  the  intemperate  rush  for  profits. 
Who  can  measure  the  intangible  but  very  real  loss 
caused  to  the  nation  and  to  the  world? 

5.  The  evolution  of  the  labor  movement 

The  idea  that  a  race  has  inborn  traits  and  ideals 
which  are  practically  unchangeable  is  sharply  chal¬ 
lenged  by  the  rapid  changes  brought  about  in  the 
thoughts  and  habits  of  millions  of  the  Japanese  people 
as  they  have  been  suddenly  transplanted  from  country 
to  city.  Old  Japan  may  be  said  to  have  been  rural- 
minded;  New  Japan  is  urban-minded.  Old  Japan  was 
a  paternalistic  oligarchy;  New  Japan  is  becoming 
democratic  overfast.  Old  Japan  was  ruled  by  tra¬ 
dition  and  loyalty;  New  Japan  is  dominated  increas¬ 
ingly  by  science  and  the  lust  for  money.  Old  Japan 


78 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


was  ruled  by  her  upper  classes— less  than  five  per 
cent  of  the  people-while  the  other  ninety-five  per 
cent  plodded  on  submissively  in  the  ways  of  their 
forefathers,  not  always  happy,  but  living  an  uneventful 
life  close  to  nature  and  marked  by  the  homely  virtues 
of  a  hard-working  agricultural  people.  Their  place 
in  New  Japan  is  being  taken  by  a  class-conscious, 
sophisticated,  and  aggressive  working  class  who  are 
learning,  not  only  the  shibboleths  of  socialism  and 
the  red  international,  but  who  are  becoming  adepts 
at  direct  action  and  mass  pressure  upon  employers 
and  rulers  alike.  The  irrepressible  Labor  Movement 
is  the  salient  embodiment  of  all  these  changes. 

It  was  in  1897  under  the  lead  of  Katayama  and 
other  socialists  that  the  modern  labor  movement  first 
began  to  take  shape.  The  boom  after  the  victory  of 
Japan  over  China  had  been  accompanied  by  high  prices, 
and  the  workers,  in  straits,  began  to  clamor  for  higher 
wages.  In  February,  1898,  a  successful  strike  was 
waged  on  the  largest  railway  in  the  country.  There 
were  then  no  legal  obstacles  in  the  way  of  labor  organ¬ 
izations,  and  several  strong  unions  were  started,  some 
of  them  based  on  the  century-old  artisan  guilds.  So¬ 
cialism  and  the  rights  of  the  worker  were  discussed 
and  applauded  by  many  progressive  intellectuals,  in¬ 
cluding  Marquis  Okuma,  who  was  always  an  “Athen¬ 
ian”  and  a  good-natured  patron  of  novel  causes. 

But  the  infant  labor  movement  was  given  a  body 
blow  in  1900  when  the  Public  Order  Police  Law  was 
passed.  Article  17  of  this  lav/  has  been  freely  invoked 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  ;g 

to  prevent  both  industrial  workers  and  tenant  farmers 
from  organizing  unions  or  agitating  against  employ¬ 
ers  or  landlords. 

The  police  used  their  new  weapon  with  such  deadly 
effect  that  from  1903  until  1917  aggressive  labor 
unions  were  well-nigh  unknown.  But  the  workers 
had  tasted  blood,  and  they  continued  spasmodically  in 
mines  or  railways  to  rise  up  in  their  wrath  and  by 
strikes  or  destructive  riots  to  wrest  concessions  from 
their  employers.  In  1905  the  populace  of  Tokyo, 
indignant  over  the  peace  terms  with  Russia  and  the 
repression  of  popular  freedom  at  home,  ran  wild  until 
the  city  was  placed  under  martial  law.  I  well  recall 
how  a  battalion  of  troops  was  billeted  in  the  large 
Y.  M.  C.  A,  hall,  sleeping  on  the  benches  and  on  the 
floor.  Japanese  miners  have  always  been  pretty 
much  a  law  unto  themselves,  and  so  it  was  not  sur¬ 
prising  that  in  1907,  when  they  were  being  forced  to 
work  at  the  point  of  the  rifle,  they  revolted  en  masse 
in  two  copper  mines  and  caused  enormous  damage. 

6.  The  labor  movement  becomes  belligerent 

I11  the  August  of  1912  occurred  a  red-letter  event 
for  the  Japanese  laborer,  for  it  was  then  that  a  young 
Christian  lawyer,  Bunji  Suzuki,  formed  the  Laborer’s 
Friendly  Society  (Yuai  Kai).  Mr.  Katayama  and  his 
colleagues  in  the  earlier  labor  movement  had  encum¬ 
bered  the  movement  with  Marxian  socialism.  Mr. 
Suzuki  avoided  that  error  and  at  first  formed  simply 
a  mutual  benefit  society,  not  a  labor  movement.  But 


8o 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


from  an  early  date  he  cherished  the  plan  of  transform¬ 
ing  it  into  a  labor  union  as  soon  as  the  members  had 
been  sufficiently  trained  and  tested. 

This  is  exactly  what  has  come  to  pass,  but  the  pro¬ 
cess  was  hastened  by  the  awakening  of  the  common 
people  under  the  lash  of  war-time  exploitation,  and  the 
intolerable  cost  of  rice,  fuel,  and  clothing.  Shipping 
speculators  paid  for  a  vessel  in  a  single  voyage.  Mills 
declared  one  hundred  per  cent  dividends  and  gave  fat 
bonuses  to  directors  so  as  to  avoid  the  income  tax, 
while  wages  were  only  grudgingly  raised.  The  vul¬ 
gar  newly-rich  “sprang  up  like  mushrooms  after  a 
spring  rain — despised  nankins  who,  lying  back  in  pink 
upholstered  foreign  limousines,  honk-honked  com¬ 
mon  millions  out  of  the  narrow  streets.  And  with 
every  new  nankin  the  price  of  rice  rose  another 
notch.”  And  rice  is  bread  and  meat  to  the  Japanese. 
Goaded  to  desperation  by  such  heartless  display  and 
by  the  hoarding  of  rice  by  speculators  and  sake  manu¬ 
facturers,  the  angry  mobs  set  out  to  execute  rude 
justice  as  they  saw  it.  The  “rice  riots”  in  Kobe 
during  those  hot  August  days  in  1918  set  match  to 
powder  in  scores  of  cities. 

Forthwith  the  Imperial  Household  itself  started  a 
conciliation  and  relief  fund  by  a  contribution  of 
$1,500,000,  and  the  victims  and  other  wealthy  men 
almost  in  a  panic  added  $12,000,000.  It  was  no 
doubt  conscience  money  in  many  cases,  disgorged  lest 
a  worse  thing  befall;  but  some  of  the  donors  were 
men  bred  on  traditional  standards,  kind-hearted  and 
fairly  honest,  who  must  have  been  pained  and  per- 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  81 

plexed  by  the  high-handed  demands  of  the  populace. 
This  huge  largess  was  used  to  give  immediate  relief 
to  the  poor  and  to  establish  public  markets,  cheap 
restaurants,  and  other  alleviating  agencies. 

These  miraculously  effective  riots  whetted  the  fight¬ 
ing  edge  of  the  laborers.  The  great  body  of  public 
opinion  inclined  to  side  with  them;  for  the  doctrine 
of  self-determination  and  the  half-understood  but 
wonderfully  stirring  ideas  of  “democracy”  popularized 
through  translations  of  President  Wilson’s  utterances, 
found  ready  soil  in  the  hearts  alike  of  the  intellectuals 
and  of  the  common  people.  Historians  will  probably 
look  back  upon  the  years  1917  and  1918  as  marking 
the  emergence  of  the  Japanese  proletariat. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  strikes  during 
the  war  is  an  unmistakable  index  of  the  revolutionary 
change  in  ideas  which  was  going  on.  In  1914  there 
were  only  50  strikes  involving  7,904  workers;  in  1917 
the  number  had  increased  to  398  strikes  involving 
57,309  workers,  and  the  peak  was  reached  in  1918  with 
417  strikes  involving  66,457  workers.  The  sharp 
slump  of  1920,  bringing  wide  unemployment  in  its 
train,  robbed  the  workers  of  much  of  their  power  to 
put  organized  pressure  upon  employers.  This  is  regis¬ 
tered  by  the  fact  that  in  1921  the  number  of  strikes 
had  fallen  to  246,  involving  58,225  workers. 

The  employing  class  were  at  first  dumbfounded  by 
the  effrontery  of  their  erstwhile  docile  employees. 
They  had  flattered  themselves  that  Japan  would  escape 
the  labor  struggles  of  the  West  because,  forsooth, 
in  old  Japan  the  employer  was  a  father  and  the 


82  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

workers  were  his  children.  The  ingrained  relation  of 
superior  and  inferior  resulting  from  seven  centuries 
of  feudalism  surely  could  not  be  destroyed  in  a  few 
decades  by  the  introduction  of  Western  machinery 
and  methods !  Even  though  the  old  intimacy  between 
proprietor  and  worker  which  had  prevailed  in  house¬ 
hold  handicrafts  would  needs  give  place  to  a  more 
impersonal  relationship,  yet  the  employer  and  the 
government  by  means  of  welfare  work  and  paternal 
protection  of  the  worker  and  his  family  would  pre¬ 
serve  much  of  the  spirit  of  the  old  regime  and  forestall 
any  danger  of  violent  protests  among  his  grateful 
employees. 

But  this  bright  dream  faded  into  thin  air  before 
the  demands  of  the  disillusioned  workers  who  had 
tasted  welfare  work  and  found  it  a  poor  substitute 
for  wages  enough  to  feed  their  children  and  freedom 
enough  to  organize  and  express  themselves  like  self- 
respecting  citizens.  After  the  employers  had  recovered 
from  the  first  shock  of  aggrieved  surprise  they  yielded 
in  most  cases  to  the  demands  of  the  workers,  for  labor 
was  at  a  premium  during  the  war  and  it  was  better 
to  share  a  fraction  of  the  profits  than  to  lose  them  all. 
With  each  success  the  laborers  gained  confidence  and 
skill,  and  though  they  had  almost  no  accumulated  funds 
to  pay  strike  benefits,  they  showed  marvelous  tenacity 
and  power  of  sticking  together,  forming  firm  groups 
out  of  what  had  been  only  a  promiscuous  aggregation 
of  individual  atoms.  They  developed  mass  singing 
for  the  first  time  and  found  it  worked  wonders  in 
bracing  courage  and  arousing  devotion  to  the  cause 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


S3 


in  the  face  of  suffering  and  of  police  opposition.  A 
typical  song  is  the  one  printed  below,  which  was  sung 
by  a  procession  of  laborers  formed  to  welcome  Mr. 
Suzuki  to  Kobe  during  the  labor  struggles  of  1919 ; 

Workers  of  Nippon,  awake,  awake! 

Old  things  are  done  with  and  passed  away. 

Worlds  that  are  new  are  for  you  to  make. 

Strive,  then,  and  fail  not  in  this  3rour  day. 

Farmers  and  weavers  and  shipwrights  all, 

Miners  who  labor  beneath  the  soil, 

You  who  drop  sweat  to  get  bread,  we  call. 

Honors  are  now  for  the  sons  of  toil. 

Early  to  work  though  cold  winds  bite, 

Tired  ere  homeward  their  wa>r  they  take, 

Da>Tlight  gone  and  the  stars  alight — 

So  they  toil  for  the  whole  world’s  sake. 

Workers  of  Nippon,  awake,  awake ! 

Old  things  are  done  with  and  passed  away. 

Worlds  that  are  new  are  for  you  to  make. 

Strive,  then,  and  fail  not  in  this  your  da)r. 

Hooray  for  the  Yuai-kai!  Hooray!* 

They  organized  cooperative  markets  and  eating 
houses  where  they  and  their  families  could  be  sure  of 
one  meal  a  day.  If  they  stayed  on  the  job  or  went  back 
to  work  before  the  companies  yielded,  they  shrewdly 
practised  the  ca’canny  or  “go  slow”  tactics  of  occi- 
dental  strikers,  and  !tJiU|S  compel lbd  the  Kawasaki 
Dockyards  to  divide  among  them  $1,875,000  out  of 
the  company’s  huge  surplus.  Some  of  the  leading 

*Japan  Chronicle ,  August  14,  1919. 


S4 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


newspapers,  like  those  in  Osaka,  eighteen  miles  away, 
gave  outspoken  backing  to  the  strikers,  and  three  thou¬ 
sand  Osaka  workmen  crowded  a  special  train  in  order 
to  go  to  Kobe  and  join  in  a  sympathetic  demonstration. 

The  story  of  the  struggle  in  the  great  Kobe  ship¬ 
yards  in  1921  showed  that  the  day  of  suppressing 
or  hoodwinking  the  erstwhile  bovine  laborers  has  gone 
beyond  recall. 

The  upshot  of  the  whole  struggle  was  an  apparent 
victory  for  the  employers,  for  the  strikers  returned 
to  work.  But  as  the  employers  had  refused  to  yield, 
so  the  workers  made  no  terms,  simply  declaring  that 
they  would  postpone  a  solution  until  a  more  favorable 
occasion.  They  had  developed  an  esprit  de  corps. 
For  the  first  time  they  had  measured  swords  with 
their  masters  and  discovered  that  they  could  almost 
worst  them. 

Strikes  have  occurred,  not  only  in  the  shipyards 
and  mines,  but  in  all  the  major  industries  and  even  in 
the  chief  government  arsenals.  These  arsenals  are 
under  the  stern  hand  of  the  War  Department,  but 
the  omnipotent  General  Staff  had  to  compromise  with 
the  strikers.  On  the  occasion  of  a  certain  paper 
factory  strike,  three  hundred  men  made  an  effigy  of 
their  employer,  stuck  long  lances  through  it,  and 
then  bore  it  tauntingly  up  and  down  before  his  resi¬ 
dence.  Even  the  stenographers  in  the  national  Par¬ 
liament  struck  for  higher  wages  and  stopped  the 
wheels  of  Imperial  affairs. 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  85 

7.  The  awakening  of  the  tenant  farmers 

Thus  far  we  have  dealt  with  the  labor  uprisings 
brought  about  by  the  exploitation  of  workers  in 
factories  and  mines,  but  there  has  been  a  parallel 
uprising  among  the  tenant  farmers  of  the  country 
which  bids  fair  to  have  equally  far-reaching  and 
revolutionary  results.  Seventy  per  cent  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  and  of 
that  number  seventy  per  cent  are  tenants,  each  tilling 
an  average  of  one  and  one  half  acres.  In  other  words, 
forty-nine  per  cent  of  the  58,000,000  in  Japan  are 
not  owners,  but  dependent  tenants  working  on  shares 
and  exposed  to  all  the  uncertainties  of  drought  and 
flood  and  storm.  For  hundreds  of  years  they  have 
patiently  borne  their  hard  lot,  only  breaking  out  here 
and  there  against  particularly  harsh  masters  and  then 
going  back  to  the  old  treadmill.  But  universal  edu¬ 
cation  has  made  eighty  per  cent  of  them  able  to  read 
the  papers,  and  the  steady  increase  of  population  has 
so  reduced  the  land  area  available  to  supply  rice  and 
barley  for  each  new  mouth  that  discontent  has  inev¬ 
itably  developed.  Even  the  remotest  hamlets  have 
been  touched  by  the  tidal  wave  of  democracy  and 
self-assertion  created  by  the  upheavals  of  war-time. 
'There  have  been  many  examples  of  generosity  on  the 
part  of  wise  and  kindly  landlords  who  have  made 
their  tenants’  sufferings  their  own,  but  there  have 
been  still  more  cases  of  grasping  and  heartless  indif¬ 
ference.  The  result  is  that  tenant  farmer  unions 
have  sprung  up  all  over  the  Empire  until  there  are 


86  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

now  over  five  hundred.  What  the  end  will  be  no 
man  dares  predict,  but  it  is  recognized  by  wise  ob¬ 
servers  that  it  portends  a  radical  readjustment  in  the 
very  foundations  of  Japanese  life. 

8.  Wise  leaders  needed 

The  men  and  women  on  farms  and  in  factories 
whose  life-blood  is  being  sucked  out  by  the  system 
of  which  they  are  so  helpless  a  part  and  the  working 
fathers  and  mothers  who  see  their  children  doomed 
to  grow  up  stunted  in  body  and  mind  cry  aloud  for 
help,  and  when  their  cries  come  back  to  them  from 
heaven  like  brass,  it  is  small  wonder  that  they  feel 
driven  to  take  matters  into  their  own  hands  rather 
than  wait  for  the  slow:  and  hitherto  temporizing 
measures  of  the  privileged  classes.  But  our  account 
of  the  Kobe  shipyard  strikers  indicates  that  the 
workers  are  like  children  playing  with  razors.  They 
are  surprised  and  intoxicated  by  their  unsuspected 
power.  Having  been  themselves  held  in  check  by 
force,  they  quickly  resort  to  violence  when  peaceful 
and,  to  their  thinking,  reasonable  demands  are  spurned 
bv  employers.  They  have  too  often  been  their  own 
worst  enemies.  Like  undisciplined  masses  everywhere, 
they  too  readily  follow  the  blatant  leader  who  boasts 
that  he  will  “beat  the  money  barons  to  a  frazzle/' 

What  the  workers  and  the  employers  both  need 
is  fair-minded,  wise  leadership.  Without  this  the 
labor  movement  is  in  imminent  danger  of  falling 
under  the  sway  of  self-seeking  demagogues  or  hot¬ 
headed  partisans.  How  real  this  danger  is  will  be 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


87 


apparent  in  the  report  of  a  recent  national  labor 
conference  sent  to  me  bv  Mr.  Guy  C.  Converse,  an 
eye-witness : 

I  attended  the  National  Trade  Union  Conference  in  Osaka 
on  September  30,  1922.  There  were  106  delegates  from  59 
trade  unions.  Twice  during  the  Conference  the  300  police 
present  broke  up  the  meeting  because  of  disorder.  They  also 
broke  up  a  meeting  of  socialists,  anarchists,  and  bolshevists, 
who  were  paralleling  the  Trade  Union  Conference. 

At  the  Conference  the  air  was  electric.  Divergent  ele¬ 
ments — police  and  spies,  and  the  radicals  in  the  gallery  shout  ¬ 
ing  taunts  continually — made  it  a  very  difficult  situation. 
Every  time  a  chair  was  tipped  over  or  there  was  any  stir, 
the  crowd  was  on  its  feet.  I  saw  a  hundred  men  surge  to 
the  windows  at  a  slight  noise  only  to  return  rather  sheep¬ 
ishly  when  they  found  nothing  happening  in  the  courtyard 
below. 

The  Conference  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  workers, 
all  of  whom  revere  Kagawa  as  the  man  who  wakened 
them  and  who  did  the  pioneer  work,  but  many  of  them 
feel  that  he  is  too  passive,  not  radical  enough  for  today. 
Suzuki  they  consider  a  man  of  the  past,  an  opportunist,  who 
did  good  service  in  his  day;  but  now  they  feel  they  need  real 
laborers  who  are  willing  to  fight  if  necessary.  Russia  exerts 
a  great  influence.  The  class  struggle  is  very  much  a  part  of 
their  philosophy.  They  are  opposed  to  international  war, 
all  war  being  considered,  of  course,  a  “capitalists’  war.” 
With  such  a  situation  you  can  see  that  the  Christianizing  and 
educating  of  labor  leaders  is  one  of  the  most  urgent  needs. 

If  it  be  asked,  What  relation  has  Christianity  to 
these  conditions  in  Japan?  it  must  be  promptly  ad¬ 
mitted  that  America  and  England,  though  long  under 
the  influence  of  Christian  teaching,  have  not  solved 
their  industrial  problems;  but  the  chief  reason  why 
they  have  escaped  worse  troubles  is  that  so  many 


88 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


employers  and  employees  are  at  least  partially  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  Spirit  of  Jesus. 

But  the  Christian  churches  of  the  West,  through 
foreign  missions,  have  made  a  noteworthy  contribution 
toward  meeting  the  very  similar  problems  in  Japan. 
Most  of  the  ablest  leaders  of  the  constructive  labor 
and  reform  movements  have  been  bred  in  Christian 
schools  or  vitally  influenced  by  missionaries.  Mr. 
Suzuki  owes  much  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Clay  McCauley 
and  Mr.  Kagawa  looks  upon  the  Rev.  Dr.  H.  W. 
Myers  as  more  than  a  father.  The  same  is  true  in 
varying  degrees  of  scores  of  others,  writers,  business 
men,  and  publicists,  who  are  the  spear-head  of  the 
social  advance. 

Just  how  indispensable  a  part  must  be  taken  by 
Christians  in  meeting  the  problems  created  by  modern 
industry  will  become  clearer  as  we  turn  now  to  the 
remedial  forces  at  work. 

II.  ATTEMPTED  REMEDIES  FOR  SOCIAL  ILLS 

The  Japanese  are  a  humane  people.  Buddhism 
has  saturated  them  with  tenderness  and  pity,  but 
their  long  feudal  training  and  the  dominance  of  the 
family  system  predispose  them  to  limit  their  sympathy 
to  relatives  or  fellow-clansmen.  Besides  this,  the  pity 
engendered  by  Buddhism  does  not  so  quickly  take 
shape  in  action  as  the  more  positive  love  engendered 
by  Christ.  It  tends  rather  to  beget  the  mild  fatalism 
reflected  in  the  everyday  phrase  “Shikata  ga  nai” — 
“It  can't  be  helped.”  Furthermore,  the  glamour  of 
the  wealth  created  by  the  industrial  system  has  so 


A  BUDDHIST  TEMPLE  CEREMONY 


A  BUDDHIST  “SUNDAY  SCHOOL 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


89 


blinded  many  eyes  that  they  cannot  see  the  maimed 
victims  of  the  process  who  lie  all  about  their  path. 
Like  the  man  who  went  down  from  Jerusalem  to 
Jericho  and  was  left  half-dead  by  the  wayside,  so 
great  numbers  of  innocent  men  and  women  and 
children  are  lying  along  the  rough  highway  of  Jap¬ 
anese  industry,  and  as  yet  the  good  Samaritans  are 
all  too  few  to  bind  up  their  wounds.  And  what  is 
more,  no  force  has  appeared  capable  of  ridding  the 
highway  of  the  robber  bands.  But  I  would  not  give 
a  wrong  impression;  the  government  and  hundreds 
of  private  employers  and  other  men  of  good-will 
have  tried  hard  to  remedy  the  worst  abuses  growing 
out  of  the  industrial  revolution. 

1.  The  National  Factory  Law 

First  of  all  should  be  mentioned  the  National  Fac¬ 
tory  Law  which  was  passed  by  the  Imperial  Diet  in 
1911  and  was  finally  put  into  effect  in  September, 
1916.  The  chief  provisions  are  as  follows: 

1.  Children  under  twelve  years  of  age  cannot  be  employed, 
except  that,  with  the  permission  of  the  administrative 
authorities,  children  as  young  as  ten  may  be  employed  on 
light  work. 

2.  The  employment  of  children  under  fifteen  and  women 
for  more  than  twelve  hours  a  day  is  prohibited. 

3.  Employment  of  children  under  fourteen  and  women 
between  the  hours  of  ten  P.  M.  and  four  A.  M.  is  pro¬ 
hibited. 

4.  At  least  two  holidays  a  month  shall  be  allowed  women 
and  children  workers:  four  holidays  for  those  employed 
alternately  on  day  and  night  work. 

5.  At  least  thirty  minutes  of  rest  within  the  first  six 


D-.lap 


90 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


hours  of  work  and  sixty  minutes  if  working  in  excess  of 
ten  hours  must  be  allowed. 

6.  Operatives  shall  not  work  more  than  ten  consecutive 
nights, 

y.  Women  and  children  are  not  to  engage  in  dangerous 
work  or  to  be  employed  where  poisonous  gases  or  other 
injurious  substances  are  manufactured  or  generated. 

The  first  and  third  provisions  were  not  to  he  put 
into  operation  for  fifteen  years  in  order  to  allow  the 
factories  time  to  adjust  themselves!  Furthermore, 
most  of  the  provisions  are  so  weakened  by  the  dis¬ 
cretion  given  to  administrative  officers  in  permitting 
their  suspension  that  they  have  been  at  best  but  a  flimsy 
protection.  Practically  all  safeguards  were  swept 
away  during  the  war  when  the  pressure  for  production 
was  intense  and  both  laborers  and  employers  were 
keen  after  profits.  Of  late  the  government  inspectors 
have  insisted  more  strictly  on  obedience  to  the  law 
and  in  many  of  the  large  factories  conditions  are 
fairly  good.  In  the  smaller  plants,  located  in  the 
towns  and  villages  and  often  housed  in  dark  unsanitary 
structures,  inspection  is  infrequent  and  abuses  are 
likely  to  escape  detection. 

2.  Welfare  work  in  private  factories 

The  welfare  work  conducted  by  scores  of  the  larger 
spinning  and  weaving  concerns  will  bear  comparison 
with  much  of  that  done  by  occidental  employers. 
There  are  doctors  and  nurses,  playgrounds  and  enter¬ 
tainment  halls,  good  ventilation  and  lighting,  retiring 
allowances,  and  sick  benefits;  but  unfortunately  these 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  91 

features  are  found  only  in  a  small  minority  of  the 
total  number  of  plants.  In  Tokyo,  for  example,  three 
hundred  only  out  of  the  five  thousand  factories  have 
anything  deserving  the  name  of  welfare  work. 

The  outstanding  weakness,  however,  even  of  these 
high-grade  factories,  is  the  lack  of  opportunity  for 
self-expression  and  self-government  by  the  employees. 
The  habit  of  paternal  direction,  not  to  say  domination, 
still  persists,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  with  the  insist¬ 
ent  demand  of  the  workers  for  greater  self-determina¬ 
tion,  the  employers  may  delay  granting  it  too  long. 
Indeed,  the  labor  outbreaks,  already  recounted,  are 
ample  evidence  of  the  peril  of  delay  and  repression. 

In  1910  the  police  unearthed  what  they  declared 
to  be  a  plot  against  the  life  of  the  Emperor.  Many 
anarchists  and  other  radicals  were  arrested,  and  from 
among  them  twelve  were  executed  early  in  1911.  The 
trials  were  held  in  absolute  secrecy,  but  the  story  went 
abroad  that  the  cases  against  most  of  these  so-called 
anarchists  were  police  frame-ups.  This  rumor  added 
fuel  to  the  growing  discontent  of  the  dependent  classes, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  it  was  with  the  intent  to 
allay  unrest  and  forestall  outbreaks  that  the  Imperial 
Household  started  a  national  relief  fund.  The  Cabinet 
immediately  took  up  the  matter  and  by  pressure 
secured  from  men  of  wealth  a  total  of  $10,000,000. 
This  Fund  was  put  into  the  custody  of  a  new  organi¬ 
zation  called  the  Saiseikai.  With  the  income  from 
this  endowment,  which  amounts  to  about  $325,000 
a  year,  subsidies  are  granted  to  hospitals  all  over  the 


92 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


country,  and  new  charity  hospitals  have  been  estab¬ 
lished.  Medical  relief  is  thus  being-  given  to  some 
100,000  persons  each  year. 

j.  Private  and  governmental  institutions 

The  severe  labor  troubles  of  war-time  impelled 
some  of  the  most  eminent  industrial  leaders  to  establish 
what  is  called  the  Association  of  Harmonious  Coop¬ 
eration  (Kyo  Cho  Kai)  for  the  promotion  of  good 
relations  between  labor  and  capital.  There  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  the  sincerity  and  breadth  of  purpose 
of  this  Association,  but  inevitably  it  has  incurred  the 
distrust  of  laborers,  being  looked  upon  as  a  capitalistic 
agency  for  the  maintenance  of  things  as  they  are. 

Another  enterprise  indicative  of  the  thorough 
methods  which  thoughtful  Japanese  are  applying  to 
industrial  problems,  is  the  Ohara  Institute  for  Social 
Research,  founded  in  1919  by  a  munificent  gift  from 
a  factory  magnate  who  had  been  impregnated  with 
the  Christian  spirit  through  the  influence  of  Ishii  Juji, 
the  George  Muller  of  Japan.  The  Institute  is  akin 
to  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  of  New  York  and 
has  already  issued  a  number  of  valuable  studies. 

The  Social  Welfare  Bureau  in  the  Imperial  De¬ 
partment  of  Home  Affairs  and  the  corresponding 
bureaus  in  the  chief  provinces  show  how  up-to-date 
the  Japanese  Government  is  in  its  attempt  to  mitigate 
the  evils  of  modern  civilization.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
a  goodly  number  of  the  experts  in  these  bureaus  are 
Christian  men  and  women,  not  a  few  of  them  trained 
in  Japanese  Christian  schools  and  later  in  occidental 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


93 


universities.  Recent  years  have  seen  a  marvelous 
expansion  of  practical  relief  measures  on  the  part 
of  the  chief  municipalities.  Cheap  lodging  houses, 
restaurants,  baths,  employment  agencies,  and  night 
schools  are  now  accessible  to  multitudes.  In  Osaka, 
for  example,  the  Working  Men’s  Club  is  a  spacious 
building,  providing  most  of  the  facilities  characteristic 
of  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building.  The  director,  Mr.  Shiga, 
is  a  university  graduate  who,  for  some  time,  was  an 
“Association”  secretary,  and  he  is  attempting  to 
minister  in  the  spirit  of  his  Master  to  the  swarms  of 
working  men  who  throng  the  building. 

4.  Tuberculosis ,  unemployment,  housing  shortage 

The  spread  of  tuberculosis  in  Japan  has  been  aggra¬ 
vated  by  the  conditions  in  the  factories  and  mines  so 
that  the  ratio  of  tubercular  patients  is  one  of  the 
highest  among  civilized  nations,  being  one  to  every 
fifty-two  persons.  In  1916  there  were  86,633  deaths 
from  tuberculosis  which  is  at  the  rate  of  157  in  10,000. 
The  government  authorities  were  surprisingly  slow 
in  adopting*  preventive  measures,  but  now  both  gov¬ 
ernment  and  volunteer  agencies  are  actively  educating 
the  people  as  to  the  prevention  and  cure  of  the  disease. 
During  the  past  few  years  five  municipal  sanitaria 
have  been  established.  There  are  also  five  private 
sanitaria  for  tuberculosis,  three  of  which  are  under 
Christian  auspices. 

The  phenomenal  expansion  of  industry  between 
1914  and  1919  led  to  a  huge  mobilizing  of  labor  in  the 
larger  cities,  and  when  the  sudden  slump  struck  all 


94 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


industry  in  1920,  there  was  a  corresponding  concen¬ 
tration  of  the  unemployed.  One  of  the  chief  relief 
measures  adopted  was  the  rapid  extension  of  employ¬ 
ment  exchanges  by  the  cooperation  of  the  national 
and  local  governments.  An  impetus  in  this  direction 
was  given  by  the  resolutions  of  the  International  Labor 
Conference  held  at  Washington  in  1919.  The  result 
has  been  the  increase  in  the  number  of  employment 
exchanges  from  23  in  1916  to  396  in  1921.  The  greater 
part  of  this  increase  is  due  to  the  establishment  of 
municipal  and  village  exchanges. 

Like  every  other  country,  since  the  War  Japan  has 
had  an  acute  housing  shortage  due  to  the  concentration 
of  resources  upon  the  manufacture  of  munitions. 
Finally,  in  1919,  the  government  made  available  to 
municipalities  a  loan  of  $11,500,000  to  be  used  in  the 
erection  of  dwellings,  particularly  for  the  laboring 
class.  A  total  of  15,500  houses  had  been  completed  in 
accordance  with  this  plan  up  to  the  end  of  1921,  but 
creditable  as  this  result  was,  it  supplied  only  one 
eighth  of  the  number  of  dwellings  needed. 

In  some  municipalities  laborers’  lodging  houses  are 
operated  at  a  cost  charge  of  between  six  and  ten 
cents  a  night.  In  addition  to  fairly  clean  beds,  whole¬ 
some  food,  a  bath,  an  employment  office,  and  a  small 
reading  room  are  provided.  These  houses  are  a  great 
boon  to  countrymen  coming  to  the  city  to  look  for  a 
job,  and  to  the  thousands  of  men  thrown  out  of  work 
whenever  there  is  a  business  depression. 

An  influential  factor  in  the  improvement  of  slum 
conditions  is  the  schools  for  poor  children  such  as 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


95 


those  operated  in  the  lower  east  side  and  other  slum 
districts  in  Tokyo.  In  eight  of  these  schools  there 
are  altogether  4,800  children.  It  is  found  that  the 
children  are  pitifully  lacking  in  physical  stamina,  and 
that,  accordingly,  ninety-five  per  cent  of  those  entering 
one  school  were  found  to  be  afflicted  with  some  form 
of  nervous  disease.  Coming  as  they  do  from  hovels 
where  old  and  young  are  crowded  together  in  sickness 
and  health,  with  alternate  carousing  and  quarreling 
going  on  and  lack  of  normal  opportunities  for  play 
and  wholesome  recreation,  it  is  small  wonder  that  the 
children  are  so  abnormal.  Many  of  the  teachers  in 
these  poor  schools  are  veritable  missionaries  of  light 
and  love  to  their  own  people. 

5.  Christian  leaders  in  welfare  activities 

To  anyone  who  knows  how  vital  a  contribution 
Christianity  is  making  to  the  solution  of  social  prob¬ 
lems  in  the  Far  East,  it  will  be  no  surprise  to  learn 
that  the  welfare  work  carried  on  in  factories  owned 
by  Christians  has  been  so  uniquely  successful  as  to 
constitute  in  itself  an  apologetic  for  the  Christian  life. 
Notable  among  these  is  the  work  carried  on  by  Mr. 
T.  Watanabe,  whose  remarkable  story  has  been  given 
me  by  his  close  friend,  Mr.  J.  Merle  Davis : 

Mr.  T.  Watanabe  six  years  ago  was  the  manager  of  one 
of  the  cotton  spinning  mills  of  the  Fuji  Gassed  Cotton  Spin¬ 
ning  Co.  situated  at  Oyama,  on  the  Tokaido  Railroad  line 
near  the  foot  of  Mt.  Fuji.  He  was  not  at  that  time  a 
Christian.  He  began  to  notice  the  sweet  devotion  and 
kindly,  self-sacrificing  spirit  of  one  of  the  nurses  attached 


9 6  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

to  the  Mill  Hospital.  Her  conduct  and  personality  stood  out  in 
sharp  contrast  with  the  other  nurses  and  matrons  of  the  mill. 

One  day  Mr.  Watanabe  asked  the  nurse  why  she  took  so 
much  pains  to  be  kind  and  thoughtful  with  her  patients  and 
why  she  seemed  happy  all  the  time  amid  rather  depressing 
surroundings.  She  replied  that  she  was  a  Christian  and  had 
the  love  of  Christ  in  her  heart;  that  it  was  Christ  within 
her.  Mr.  Watanabe  was  deeply  impressed  and  finally  decided 
if  Christ  could  so  change  this  nurse  that  he  needed  him 
and  would  seek  him.  Not  long  after  this  he  was  baptized. 

Later  Mr.  Watanabe  was  transferred  to  the  managership 
of  one  of  the  Company's  Tokyo  plants,  and  it  was  here  that 
he  began,  about  four  and  a  half  years  ago,  the  remarkable 
Christian  social  welfare  program  which  marks  him  as  one  of 
the  outstanding  pioneers  in  industrial  betterment  in  Japan. 
He  found  the  directors  of  his  Company  hard-headed,  practi¬ 
cal  men,  opposed  to  appropriating  adequate  sums  for  welfare 
work  and  prejudiced  against  the  Christian  emphasis  which 
Watanabe  placed  in  his  welfare  program.  They  granted 
him  an  utterly  inadequate  sum  with  which  to  carry  out  his 
plans,  and  told  him  if  he  made  good,  they  would  put  a 
larger  sum  in  the  budget  of  the  next  year.  He  was  thus 
compelled  to  work  practically  without  equipment. 

He  organized  Bible  study  groups  meeting  in  the  early 
morning,  singing  and  social  groups  in  the  evening.  The 
simple,  fundamental  principles  of  right  living,  of  relationship 
to  God  and  to  fellow-men  were  taught,  and  soon  hundreds 
of  the  girls  went  to  their  work  singing  Christian  hymns.  A 
joint  Y.  M.  and  Y.  W.  C.  A.  was  organized,  patterned  after 
the  Tokyo  City  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  but  open  to  both  men  and  women. 
The  full  time  help  of  a  Christian  Pastor  was  secured,  and  in 
the  course  of  a  few  months  a  Christian  (Presbyterian) 
Church  was  formed  within  the  mill,  with  a  membership  of 
eighty-five. 

A  new  spirit  of  faithfulness,  of  efficiency,  of  happiness 
and  interest  in  work  soon  became  apparent  to  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  mill  and  with  it  came  a  noticeable  increase  in 
output.  The  result  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  was  a  very 
substantial  increase  in  appropriation  for  Welfare  Work  and 
Mr.  Watanabe  was  virtually  given  a  free  hand  to  do  as  he 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


97 


wished  with  the  mill  operatives.  In  time  this  branch  of  the 
Fuji  "Corporation  found  itself  the  object  of  attention  and 
study  on  the  part  of  mill  owners  from  all  parts  of  Japan. 
He  fearlessly  told  them  that  it  was  the  method  of  Christ. 
At  a  notable  convention  of  mill  and  factory  owners  and 
managers  in  1918,  Mr.  Watanabe  read  the  most  important 
paper  of  the  Conference,  explaining  the  application  of  the 
spirit  and  teachings  of  Christ  to  the  problems  of  management. 

About  two  years  ago  Mr.  Watanabe  resigned  from  the 
Fuji  Company  to  organize  a  mill  of  his  own.  He  is  prosper¬ 
ing  financially,  and  a  year  ago  he  gave  twelve  hundred  yen 
to  the  building  extension  fund  of  the  Tokyo  Y.  M.  C.  A. 

I  have  visited  a  half  dozen  other  industrial  enter¬ 
prises  conducted  by  Christians  and  in  every  case  have 
found  material  for  a  similar  story.  Let  me  sketch 
three  of  them. 

There  is  a  rich  silk-producing  district  not  far  from 
Kyoto,  and  at  the  center  of  it  lies  Ayabe,  which  has 
become  famous  through  the  life  and  achievements 
of  a  prodigal  son  named  T.  Hatano.  Thirty  years 
ago  he  was  a  physical  and  moral  wreck,  who  had 
wasted  his  own  and  his  family’s  substance  in  riotous 
living.  But  one  day  in  the  midst  of  his  despair  he 
stumbled  into  a  Christian  preaching  hall  in  Kobe, 
and  forthwith  light  began  to  break  upon  his  path. 
Eventually  he  became  a  firm  Christian,  returned  to 
his  native  village,  and  was  reconciled  with  his  wife 
and  family.  It  required  a  long  period  of  hard  work 
before  he  could  regain  the  confidence  of  his  fellow- 
townsmen.  After  a  time  he  became  convinced  that  the 
farmers  of  the  district  were  making  a  mistake  in  trying 
to  raise  cotton,  whereas  the  soil  was  well  suited  to 
raising  silk  cocoons,  and  he  began  to  try  to  get  enough 


98 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


money  to  make  a  demonstration.  One  old  farmer 
was  at  length  convinced  and  lent  him  a  small  sum. 
With  that  meager  start,  Hatano  entered  upon  the 
career  which  in  a  few  years  made  him  the  leading 
silk  expert  of  the  county,  the  head  of  silk  filatures 
employing  three  thousand  workers,  and  the  saintly 
leader  of  a  Christian  church  which  sprang  out  of 
his  life  and  work. 

Another  instance  of  the  fruits  of  religion  in  industry 
is  that  of  my  friend,  C.  Nakatsu  of  Kumamoto. 
Twelve  years  ago  he  graduated  from  Kyoto  Imperial 
University.  Having  inherited  considerable  property, 
he  might,  according  to  Japanese  custom,  have  retired 
to  respectable  idleness  in  his  native  city,  but  instead 
he  determined  to  make  his  wealth  and  his  education 
count  to  the  utmost  for  the  Kingdom  of  God.  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  he  organized  a  laundry  and  later  an  iron 
foundry.  His  interests  have  gradually  multiplied, 
but  he  has  continued  to  devote  himself  like  a  father 
to  the  scores  of  young  men  and  boys  in  his  foundry. 
He  has  drawn  around  him  a  number  of  associates 
who  share  his  views,  and  together  they  have  permeated 
the  shops  with  the  spirit  of  Christ  until  it  has  become 
a  factory  of  character,  no  less  than  of  pumps  and 
engines. 

Every  day  for  a  few  minutes  the  office  and  shop 
staffs  gather  in  the  shed  which  serves  as  a  chapel  and 
there,  under  the  lead  of  Mr.  Nakatsu,  they  have  a 
session  of  singing,  meditation,  and  exhortation,  and  of 
conference  regarding  the  well-being  of  the  whole 
force.  His  home  is  a  most  Christian  place,  a  bene- 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  99 

diction  to  those  who,  like  myself,  have  enjoyed  its 
hospitality.  In  the  local  Episcopal  church  and  the 
Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  he  has  been  a 
successful  teacher  of  Bible  classes  and  a  leader  in  the 
development  of  a  choir,  which  is  a  rare  feature  in 
Japanese  churches.  His  hobby  is  the  study  and  teach¬ 
ing  of  the  Gospel  of  John. 

Let  me  mention  one  more  instance,  the  dyeing  es¬ 
tablishment  owned  by  a  Christian  family  near  Osaka. 
So  ardent  was  the  religious  interest  of  the  parents 
that  they  dedicated  one  of  their  boys  at  birth  to  the 
Christian  ministry.  In  his  maturity  he  fulfilled  their 
hopes  and  is  today  one  of  the  most  devoted  pastors 
in  that  vicinity.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  to  see 
blazoned  on  the  smoke-stack  of  the  dye-works  the 
sign  of  the  Cross,  so  that  all  may  be  reminded  when¬ 
ever  they  see  it  of  the  living  Christ;  and  in  the  works 
below  that  sign,  the  life  and  policy  of  the  management 
are  such  as  to  commend  the  gospel  of  Christ. 

The  Christian  Association  in  Tokyo  Imperial 
University  was  for  years  content  to  confine  its  efforts 
to  religious  and  .social  work  among  the  students,  but 
the  emphasis  upon  social  problems  at  student  confer¬ 
ences  and  in  Bible  classes  awakened  a  number  of 
medical  members  and  graduates  to  their  duty  toward 
the  innocent  victims  of  the  industrial  system  in  the 
slums  of  East  Tokyo.  They  resolved  to  establish 
a  maternity  hospital  and  visiting  nurses’  center  in 
one  of  the  most  needy  wards  of  the  city.  The  enter¬ 
prise  was  carried  out  entirely  without  foreign  aid  or 
funds.  At  its  head  is  a  retired  professor  of  medicine. 


100 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


Although  for  many  years  he  had  maintained  only  a 
loose  connection  with  the  church,  he  seemed  to  have 
been  longing  for  some  practical  need  which  he  was 
peculiarly  fitted  to  meet,  and  gladly  put  his  prestige 
and  skill  at  the  service  of  the  hospital. 

Many  other  examples  of  the  leadership  of  Christians 
in  social  enterprises  could  be  given.  To  a  practical 
people  like  the  Japanese,  who  judge  a  religion  chiefly 
by  its  fruits,  these  enterprises  are  more  convincing 
than  volumes  of  apologetics.  One  of  their  aphorisms 
is  to  the  effect  that  an  ounce  of  evidence  outweighs 
a  ton  of  argument.  For  generations  the  common 
people  have  associated  religion  with  the  shaven-headed 
Buddhist  priests,  who  drone  Sanskrit  liturgies  and 
officiate  at  funerals,  while  they  give  the  multitudes 
sweating  under  the  yoke  of  life  exhortations  on  the 
unreality  of  evil  and  the  compensations  of  a  paradise 
hereafter.  A  learned  comparison  between  Buddhism 
and  Christianity  is  beyond  their  grasp,  but  a  religion 
that  incarnates  itself  in  self-sacrificing  service  and 
that  stoops  in  the  spirit  of  Christ  unto  the  very  least 
of  the  drudges  in  mines  and  factories,  and  the  unfor¬ 
tunates  in  the  slums,  will  command  their  respect. 

6.  Relief  or  reconstruction' — Kagawas  work 

Enough  has  been  said  of  the  relief  and  welfare 
work  inaugurated  by  the  Government  and  the  pro¬ 
gressive  employers  to  show  that  they  are  not  without 
value.  They  should  go  far  to  allay  discontent  and 
promote  general  well-being.  But  the  crucial  defect 
in.  the  policy  of  all  who  have  not  caught  the  Christian 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


101 


purpose  is  that  they  accept  the  present  industrial  and 
social  order  as  final  and  merely  attempt  to  smooth 
down  the  rough  corners,  never  thinking  to  inject 
such  an  altruistic  spirit  as  shall  ultimately  reconstruct 
the  present  order  more  nearly  after  the  pattern  of 
the  Kingdom  of  God. 

A  social  and  economic  system  which  is  dooming 
increasing  numbers  to  a  hard,  cramped,  and  even 
sub-human  existence  must  eventually  be  made  over, 
and  whether  it  is  to  be  remade  by  reasonable  and 
gradual  changes  or  by  revolutionary  violence,  will 
depend  in  large  measure  upon  the  degree  to  which 
the  working  masses  and  the  privileged  class  alike  are 
saturated  with  the  spirit  of  Christ. 

It  is  at  this  point  that  the  romantic  life  and  achieve¬ 
ments  of  Rev.  T.  Kagawa,  of  the  Kobe  slums,  shed 
light  and  hope  upon  the  whole  troubled  situation. 
It  is  easy  to  use  superlatives  about  Kagawa,  for 
although  he  is  yet  a  young  man,  just  turned  thirty- 
four,  he  has  achieved  more  than  most  men  at  sixty. 
His  career  is  so  illuminating  that  it  will  be  recounted 
in  some  detail. 

Tradition  says  that  St.  Paul  was  small  and  unpre¬ 
possessing,  and  so  Mr.  Kagawa,  who  has  been  called 
the  “Saint  of  the  Shinkawa  Slums,”  weighs  perhaps 
one  hundred  and  ten  pounds  and  has  an  undistin¬ 
guished  face  until  it  is  lighted  up  by  inward  fires  as 
he  pleads  with  some  throng  of  strikers  for  patience 
and  restraint,  or  as  he  appeals  to  some  audience  of 
university  men  and  women  to  follow  him  in  Christ- 
like  ministry  to  the  under-man. 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


102 

Mr.  Kagawa  discloses  much  of  his  life-story  in  the 
guise  of  a  novel  entitled  Crossing  the  Death-line,  which 
has  gone  through  three  hundred  editions  (200.000 
copies)  within  two  years,  a  striking  indication  of  his 
hold  on  the  public  and  of  the  wide  appeal  of  the  idealist 
approach  to  social  problems.  But  it  is  set  forth  in  more 
orderly  fashion  in  a  sketch  kindly  written  at  my  request 
by  Kagawa’s  second  father,  Rev.  Dr.  Harry  W.  Myers, 
which  is  here  reproduced. 

Toyohiko  Kagawa  was  born  August  10,  1888,  in  Kobe. 
His  father’s  family  was  wealthy.  His  father’s  legal  wife 
had  no  children. 

I  first  met  Toyohiko  when  he  was  a  slender,  precocious 
lad  of  thirteen,  with  a  brilliant  mind  and  an  ambition  to 
learn  everything.  He  was  converted  while  a  member  of 
my  English  Bible  class  and  at  once  threw  himself  with  all 
his  energy  into  the  work  of  the  church  and  Sunday  school 
to  an  extent  that  was  at  times  embarrassing.  On  graduating 
from  the  middle  school  he  told  his  uncle  that  he  was  going 
to  become  a  Christian  minister,  and  was  promptly  told  to 
get  out  of  the  house  if  that  was  his  plan.  He  came  around 
to  live  in  our  home,  as  he  had  nowhere  else  to  go,  and  we 
sent  him  up  to  study  at  Meiji  Gakuin,  the  Presbyterian 
School  in  Tokyo. 

After  finishing  in  Tokyo  he  came  back  to  Kobe  and 
entered  our  Theological  School,  but  before  long  developed 
tuberculosis  and  had  to  withdraw  and  try  to  get  back  his 
health.  Twice  he  was  at  the  very  point  of  death,  and  once 
I  sat  up  all  night  with  him  in  the  hospital,  because  the 
doctor  thought  he  might  pass  away  before  morning.  He 
spent  nearly  a  year  in  a  little  fisherman’s  cottage  on  the 
sea-side  at  Gamagori,  which  he  rented  for  fifty  cents  a 
month.-  While  there  he  learned  to  know  and  love  the  poor, 
as  he  wrote  their  letters,  painted  their  names  on  their  oiled 
paper  umbrellas,  smoothed  out  their  family  quarrels,  and 
was  big  brother  to  all  the  children  in  the  village. 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS 


103 


In  his  graduating  year  at  the  Theological  School  he  began 
going  down  to  preach  in  the  slum  section  of  Shinkawa  in 
Kobe  on  the  street  corners,  and  before  long  he  began  to  see 
results.  He  asked  permission  to  leave  the  dormitory  and 
rent  a  room  down  there  that  he  might  provide  a  place  for 
the  young  men  he  was  getting  hold  of  where  they  would  be 
free  from  the  temptations  of  the  slums.  We  tried  to  dis¬ 
suade  him  as  we  felt  that  with  his  weak  physique  this  would 
be  signing  his  death-warrant,  but  he  had  made  up  his  mind, 
and  go  he  would,  regardless  of  consequences. 

He  was  living  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  literally.  He 
never  possessed  two  coats,  as  he  would  give  one  away  to  the 
first  man  he  saw  shivering  from  the  cold.  For  one  living  in 
such  a  quarter,  an  occasional  change  of  clothing  is  a  neces¬ 
sity,  so  we  adopted  the  expedient  of  providing  an  extra 
outfit  for  him,  and  having  him  change  at  our  house  every 
two  weeks.  Often  he  would  give  away  his  food  and  live  on 
two  meals  a  day,  so  we  tried  to  entice  him  up  to  eat  a  square 
meal  as  often  as  possible.  During  this  time  he  wrote  his 
great  book  on  The  Psychology  of  Poverty.  He  also  wrote 
a  little  book  of  poems  of  the  slums,  Two  Measures  of  Tears, 
which  was  quite  successful. 

During  those  early  years  his  activity  was  simply  astonish¬ 
ing.  He  would  get  up  at  five  o’clock  and  preach  on  the 
streets  or  down  at  the  water  front  to  the  laborers  about 
to  go  to  their  work,  and  again  at  dusk  here  and  there  in 
the  slums.  He  was  tireless  in  visiting,  nursing  the  sick,  and 
helping  to  bury  the  dead.  Friends  who  saw  his  work  gave 
him  considerable  sums  of  money  which  he  used  with  a 
lavish  hand,— reserving  only  about  two  dollars  a  month  for 
his  own  support.  He  tried  various  plans  to  help  the  com¬ 
munity  about  him,  such  as  a  night  school,  a  sewing  school,  a 
dormitory,  a  cheap  eatinghouse,  a  brush  factory,  accompany¬ 
ing  it  all  with  much  preaching,  prayer,  and  Bible  teaching. 

He  set  as  his  ideal  a  celibate  life  of  service  such  as  that 
of  Origen  or  Francis  of  Assisi,  but  the  Lord  sent  him  an 
ideal  wife,  who  was  heart  and  soul  in  sympathy  with  him 
and  his  work,  and  Mrs.  Kagawa  is  able  to  run  his  home 
efficiently  for  him  and,  at  the  same  time,  do  a  great  deal  of 
religious,  social,  and  charitable  work  with  him. 


io4  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

( 

Shortly  after  his  marriage,  Mr.  Kagawa  arranged  for 
his  wife  to  take  a  coarse  of  study  in  a  religious  training- 
school  in  Yokohama,  while  he  went  to  America  to  study 
at  Princeton  Seminary  and  University.  After  three  years’ 
study  he  returned  to  Japan  in  1918  and  spent  his  first  night 
in  Japan  down  at  his  old  home  in  the  slums.  He  had  not 
been  spoiled  in  the  least  by  his  life  abroad.  While  he  was 
away,  his  work  had  been  carried  on  by  one  of  his  young 
converts. 

After  his  return  from  America,  Mr.  Kagawa  leaped  into 
prominence.  His  book  on  Poverty  had  made  him  an  authori¬ 
ty  on  social  work,  and  he  was  invited  to  give  lectures  in 
schools  and  in  public  gatherings  far  and  wide.  He  began  to 
organize  unions  among  the  laborers,  and  soon  earned  a  repu¬ 
tation  in  some  quarters  as  an  “agitator.”  He  was  responsible 
for  getting  up  many  public  meetings  to  agitate  for  prohibi¬ 
tion,  for  the  abolition  of  the  licensed  quarters,  for  universal 
suffrage,  for  better  streets,  and  similar  reforms.  Requests 
for  magazine  articles  came  pouring  in  on  him.  He  was  in 
great  demand  as  a  preacher,  and  hundreds  were  added  to  the 
churches  as  a  result  of  his  addresses. 

His  most  successful  literary  venture  was  almost  accidental. 
During  his  illness  in  Gamagori  years  ago,  he  amused  him¬ 
self  by  writing  a  biographical  novel  or  fictitious  auto¬ 
biography  which  he  entitled  Crossing  the  Death-line.  The 
manuscript  of  this  book  lay  for  years  untouched  till  two 
years  ago,  when  he  was  casting  around  for  additional  means 
to  finance  his  many  ventures.  This  manuscript  was  hauled 
down,  re-written,  and  sent  to  the  publishers.*  The  book  is 
deeply  religious,  and  gives  the  picture  of  a  young  man  pass¬ 
ing  through  temptation  and  mental  struggle  into  a  life  of 
sacrifice  and  unselfish  service.  The  book  sold  from  the  first 
as  fast  as  it  could  be  printed,  and  in  two  years  from  the 
date  of  its  publication,  it  has  nearly  reached  its  three 
hundredth  edition,  and  is  now  the  best  seller  in  the  country. 
Its  sequel  has  been  published,  and  is  only  a  little  less 

*They  are  said  to  have  given  him  $500  for  it,  but  to  have  sent 
a  check  for  $15,000  more  when  the  hundreth  edition  had  been 
reached. 


SOCIAL  PROBLEMS  AND  SOLUTIONS  105 

popular  than  the  first  volume.  Crossing  the  Death-line  has 
been  published  in  English. 

For  a  long  time  Mr.  Kagawa  was  feared  and  watched  by 
the  authorities  as  a  dangerous  radical.  When  members  of 
the  Imperial  family  passed  through  Kobe,  detectives  were 
detailed  to  watch  him.  Once  he  was  called  into  court  and 
fined  because  some  reference  he  made  to  the  form  of  gov¬ 
ernment  in  the  new  nations  of  Europe  was  interpreted  to 
be  a  veiled  attack  upon  the  government  here.  All  this  was 
rather  ludicrous  in  view  of  the  fact  that  he  is  a  pacifist  of 
the  Tolstoian  type. 

Along  with  his  activity  as  a  labor  organizer,  he  has  done 
fine  work  as  a  peace-maker  in  numerous  strikes.  In  con¬ 
nection  with  his  activities  in  this  line,  he  was  arrested 
last  year  and  spent  several  weeks  in  prison,  but  was  treated 
with  great  consideration,  and  released  at  the  direct  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  The  authorities 
are  at  last  waking  up  to  the  fact  that  Mr.  Kagawa  rep¬ 
resents  one  of  the  strongest  conservative  forces  among 
laborers  in  Japan. 

Neither  fame  nor  weariness  has  ever  weaned 
Kagawa  and  his  wife  away  from  their  tiny  home  and 
their  motley  family  in  the  heart  of  the  disease-smitten 
slums.  Criminals  and  dead-beats  and  demented 
wrecks  of  humanity  have  imposed  upon  their  un¬ 
stinted  charity  and  made  unceasing  drafts  upon  their 
sympathy. 

It  is  as  the  founder  and  leader  of  the  Western 
Federation  of  Labor  that  Kagawa  has  rendered  his 
most  difficult  and  unique  service  to  the  cause  of  in¬ 
dustrial  peace.  When  the  Federation  was  being- 
launched,  a  deputation  of  working  men  waited  upon 
him  and  his  friend  Mr.  Hisatome  and  got  them  to 
edit  the  organ  of  the  Federation.  During  the  past 
four  years  of  tempestuous  labor  strife,  Kagawa  has 


io 6 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


been  a  buttress  against  violence  and  vindictive 
measures  to  such  a  degree  that  the  ultra-radical  leaders 
have  attempted  to  undercut  his  influence  and  elbow 
him  out  of  the  inner  councils.  But  he  is  neither  per¬ 
turbed  nor  swerved  from  the  straight  road  of  utterly 
unselfish  service  to  laborer  and  employer  alike.  The 
founding  of  a  Labor  College  by  Mr.  Kagawa,  in 
Osaka,  is  one  of  his  most  far-sighted  moves.  It  aims 
to  train  labor  leaders,  whereas  the  school  opened  by 
the  Capital  and  Labor  Harmonization  Society  aims  to 
raise  the  efficiency  of  the  workers.  The  enrolment 
of  these  schools  is  still  less  than  two  hundred  for 
both.  The  labor  school  started  last  September  by 
the  Osaka  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  has 
enrolled  two  hundred  and  six.  In  all  these  schools 
the  faculties  would  rank  with  the  best,  for  not  a  few 
of  the  Imperial  University  and  Christian  college 
professors  are  enthusiastically  giving  their  services. 
In  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  school,  for  example,  we  find  seven 
doctors  of  philosophy,  medicine,  and  divinity.  It 
would  not  be  surprising  a  decade  hence  to  find  that 
the  ablest  labor  leaders  had  been  given  ballast  and 
dynamic  in  these  labor  colleges. 

A  terse  yet  eloquent  summary  of  Mr.  Kagawa’s 
gospel  is  given  in  a  message  written  for  this  book.* 

If  the  missionaries  and  the  churches  are  rearing 
even  a  few  apostles  like  Mr.  Kagawa — and  they  are — 
the  demons  in  the  Japanese  body  politic  can  be  cast 
out  and  even  industry  can  be  more  and  more  impreg¬ 
nated  by  the  Spirit  of  Christ. 


*  See  Append  IKo 


IV 


Religious  Resources  and  Problems 

“Not  many  years  ago  there  was  on  exhibition  in 
an  art  gallery  of  Tokyo  a  remarkable  picture.  It 
was  not  exactly  a  masterpiece,  but  its  subject  was 
exceedingly  suggestive.  In  the  center  stood  a  child, 
and  grouped  around  it  were  four  men,  each  beckoning 
it  to  follow.  On  the  face  of  the  child  was  an  ex¬ 
pression  of  bewilderment.  The  child  was  meant  to  rep¬ 
resent  Japan,  and  the  four  men  represented  a  Shinto 
priest,  Confucius,  Gautama  Buddha,  and  Jesus.”* 

I.  THE  BLENDED  STRATA  OF  JAPANESE  RELIGION 

This  painting  symbolizes  the  Japanese  people.  But 
it  is  not  quite  accurate;  for  just  as  an  American  can 
be  at  once  a  member  of  the  Republican  Party  and 
of  the  Associated  Charities  and  of  the  Church,  so  a 
Japanese  can  be  a  supporter  of  Shinto  as  a  patriotic 
ritual,  a  disciple  of  Confucius  as  a  teacher  of  civic 
and  family  ethics,  and  an  adherent  of  some  sect  of 
Buddhism,  probably  because  his  ancestors  were.  The 
three  faiths  have  not  always  lived  in  perfect 
peace;  orthodox  Confucianists  have  at  times  opposed 
Buddhism,  and  at  the  Restoration  of  1868  the  loyalists 
frowned  on  Buddhism  and  exalted  Shinto.  But  they 
have  all  been  so  interwoven  in  Japanese  life  and 
thought,  that  Dr.  Harada  was  cpiite  justified  in 
calling  his  book  “The  Faith  of  Japan  ”  for  it  describes 
the  religious  ideas  held  in  common  by  Japanese  of 
*  Reischauer,  A.  K. :  Studies  in  Japanese  Buddhism,  p.  r. 


io8 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


£ 


all  faiths  and  of  none.  This  blending  process  was 
given  its  great  impetus  in  the  ninth  century  when  two 
brilliant  priests,  Gyogi  and  Kobo  Daishi,  in  order  to 
wean  the  mass  of  people  from  their  stubborn  adherence 
to  their  native  Shinto,  devised  the  clever  theory  that 
the  myriad  gods  of  the  Shinto  pantheon  were  simply 
the  Japanese  counterparts  of  the  Buddhist  deities. 

Tolerance  for  things  foreign  and  new  has  always 
been  a  marked  characteristic  of  the  Japanese  people. 
In  the  religious  realm  it  made  them  ready  to  welcome 
Buddhism  in  the  sixth  century  and  Christianity  in 
the  sixteenth.  The  same  tolerant  open-mindedness 
is  still  one  of  their  most  charming  and  hopeful  traits. 
In  like  manner  assuredly,  every  follower  of  Him  who 
said  “The  truth  shall  make  you  free”  will  be  not  less 
eager  to  discover  all  that  is  good  and  beautiful  in 
the  faiths  of  Japan.  The  true  missionary  takes  as 
his  mottoes,  “I  came  not  to  destroy  but  to  1111111“  and 
“F  am  come  that  they  might  have  life  and  have  it 
abundantly.”  He  will  therefore  judge  other  faiths 
by  their  best  rather  than  by  their  worst.  He  will 
unfeignedly  rejoice  over  every  evidence  of  their  power 
to  bless  human  life  and  bring  forth  the  unmistakable 
fruits  of  the  Spirit.  Then  having  discovered  where 
the  older  faiths  leave  the  Japanese  seeker  groping 
or  impotent,  the  Christian  will  leap  to  share  with 
him  the  secret  which  he  has  himself  tested,  of  Christ 
the  Open  Door,  the  perennial  Fountain. 

Approached  in  this  spirit,  the  history  and  the 
present  state  of  Shinto  and  Confucianism  and 
Buddhism  in  Japan  are  charged  with  a  vivid,  almost 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  109 

poignant  interest.  One  feels  that  lie  is  not  a  cold 
student  of  “false”  or  outworn  “systems,”  but  a 
witness  of  the  very  birth-throes  of  human  souls,  and 
of  the  age-long  yearning  of  the  Heavenly  Father 
to  impart  his  Light  to  bewildered  men. 

Our  purpose  being  to  find  what  living  Japanese 
need  rather  than  to  study  the  philosophy  of  religions, 
we  shall  merely  touch  the  mountain  peaks  in  the 
history  of  the  older  faiths  and  devote  major  attention 
to  their  present-day  significance  and  to  the  voids  they 
have  left  for  Christianity  to  fill. 

II.  THE  CONTRIBUTION  OF  SHINTO 

Shinto,  which  means  “The  Way  of  the  Gods,”  is  the 
original  faith  of  the  Japanese  people  and  reflects  more 
perfectly  than  any  other  institution  their  character  and 
genius.  It  arose  like  so  many  other  primitive  faiths  out 
of  a  belief  in  spirits  on  the  one  hand  and  an  adoration 
of  natural  forces  on  the  other.  Even  today  the  mass 
of  the  people  wear  amulets  or  tack  up  paper  and 
wooden  charms  over  the  front  doors  of  their  dwellings. 
To  one  who  has  seen  Mt.  Fuji  at  sunrise  or  the 
Inland  Sea  under  the  full  moon,  it  is  small  wonder 
that  the  Japanese  early  became  nature  worshipers. 
Like  the  Canaanites,  the  Japanese  have  erected  shrines 
on  every  high  hill,  surrounded  by  magnificent  cedar  or 
camphor  trees.  At  the  foot  of  a  crag  or  the  approach 
to  a  waterfall  or  around  a  great  tree,  their  reverent 
fingers  have  twined  straw  ropes  in  token  of  their 
worshipful  reverence  for  the  beautiful,  the  grand, 
and  the  extraordinary.  In  Japanese  mythology  the 


iio  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

\ 

sun  goddess,  Amaterasu,  is  exalted  as  the  source  of 
life  and  food  as  well  as  the  ancestress  of  the  Imperial 
House.  Even  a  scientifically  trained  Christian  is  in¬ 
stinctively  impelled  to  bow  when,  standing  on  the 
coast  of  Japan,  he  sees  the  mighty  sun  rise  in  all  its 
majesty  from  the  bosom  of  the  Pacific. 

Amaterasu  and  other  nature  deities  were  called 
kami,  which  means  something  superior  and  awe¬ 
inspiring.  It  is  even  today  applied  by  the  common 
people  to  the  government,  and  it  has  been  adopted 
by  Christians  as  one  of  the  words  to  express  the  idea 
of  God.  It  is,  therefore,  not  strange  that  the  Shinto 
worship  of  the  nature  gods  or  kami  was  also  ex¬ 
tended  to  include  departed  tribal  chieftains  by  whose 
prowess  the  tribe  had  been  delivered.  The  next  step 
was  to  worship  the  living  chieftain  or  Mikado,  who 
was  the  visible  representative  of  the  gods  as  well  as 
the  political  ruler.  This  doctrine  of  the  divinity 
of  the  Imperial  line  was  resurrected  after  the  long 
eclipse  of  the  Imperial  family,  by  loyalist  scholars 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Their  writings  gradually 
built  up  among  the  samurai  such  an  ardent  patriotism 
for  the  Emperor  that  when  the  pressure  of  America 
and  other  powers  in  the  eighteen-fifties  forced  Japan 
to  open  her  doors,  the  strongest  clans  rallied  around 
the  Emperor  and  made  him  the  sacred  center  of 
national  unity.  Naturally,  therefore,  from  the  time 
of  the  Restoration  this  political  type  of  Shinto  has 
been  systematically  promoted  by  statesmen  and  con¬ 
servatives  as  a  buttress  against  the  invasion  of  both 
Christianity  and  democracy. 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  hi 

The  lengths  to  which  nationalistic  Shintoists  will 
carry  their  exaltation  of  the  Emperor  are  well-nigh 
inconceivable  to  a  prosaic  Westerner.  Tt  was  only 
a  decade  ago  that  a  cabinet  minister,  Baron  Oura, 
made  this  pronouncement:  ‘‘That  the  majesty  of 
our  Imperial  House  towers  high  above  everything 
to  be  found  in  the  world,  and  that  it  is  as  durable 
as  heaven  and  earth,  is  too  well  known  to  need 
dwelling  on  here.  ...  If  our  country  needs  a 
religious  faith,  then,  I  say,  let  it  be  converted  to  a 
belief  in  the  religion  of  patriotism  and  loyalty,  the 
religion  of  Imperialism,  in  other  words,  to  Emperor- 
worship.”* 

We  remarked  above  that  Shinto  reflects  the  genius 
of  the  Japanese  people.  It  exalts  simplicity,  purity, 
racial  unity,  and  nature  worship.  The  shrines,  with 
their  shingled  roofs,  simple  lines,  and  straight-grained 
natural  woods,  bare  of  ornament,  foster  a  correspond¬ 
ing  simplicity  in  the  devout  worshiper.  Before  each 
shrine  there  is  a  bowl  of  holy  water  into  which  the 
worshiper  dips  his  fingers  as  a  symbol  of  purifica¬ 
tion.  On  the  other  hand,  Shinto  is  lacking  in  any 
clear  idea  of  God,  and  therefore  of  moral  responsi¬ 
bility,  of  either  sin  or  salvation.  Shinto  teachers 
have  been  fond  of  asserting  the  native  purity  of 
the  Japanese  heart — that  the  only  requisite  for  salva¬ 
tion  was  to  follow  one’s  own  instincts  and  be  loyal 
to  the  Emperor.  Shinto  does  not  plumb  the  depths 
of  the  human  heart  or  answer  its  longings  and  strug- 

*  Millard:  Democracy  and  the  Eastern  Question,  p.  21. 


1 12 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


gles.  Like  the  exquisite  shrines  standing  in  groves 
apart,  the  Shinto  faith  seems  to  dwell  apart  from 
the  bustle  and  strife  of  real  life.  Not  an  iota  of 
its  beauty,  its  mysticism,  its  reverence  for  nature 
and  for  past  generations,  should  be  lost.  They  all 
can  be  conserved  and  treasured  by  the  Christian.  And 
who  shall  deny  that  the  Christian  Church  in  Japan 
and  elsewhere  would  be  the  gainer  by  incorporating 
the  true  and  beautiful  aspects  of  Shinto  shorn  of 
superstition  and  narrow  nationalism? 

Two  of  the  festivals  connected  with  the  old  faiths 
are  already  being  re-christened  and  given  a  Christian 
dress.  One  of  them  is  the  joyous  Buddhist  feast  of  all 
spirits,  when  torches  and  lanterns  are  set  a-twinkling 
far  and  wide  in  the  rice  fields,  and  the  candles  are 
lighted  indoors  amid  feasting  and  merriment.  The 
change  into  a  commemoration  of  All  Saints,  marked 
by  a  service  of  praise  for  departed  relatives  and 
friends,  is  being  readily  made  by  not  a  few  churches. 
Another  is  the  Shinto  feast  of  first  fruits,  when  the 
new  rice  is  presented  to  the  gods  of  fertility;  it  is 
found  by  Christians  to  be  a  natural  occasion  for  a 
service  of  praise  and  thanksgiving  to  the  Giver  of 
all  good. 

In  recent  years  two  professors  in  Tokyo  Imperial 
University  have  made  a  daring  attempt  to  rationalize 
Shinto,  and  give  it  a  place  alongside  of  Christianity 
and  Buddhism.  Indeed,  preposterous  as  it  may  seem, 
these  learned  gentlemen,  both  of  them  acquainted 
with  Western  philosophy  and  the  history  of  Chris¬ 
tianity,  have  assumed  that  Shinto  could  be  transformed 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  113 

into  a  universal  and  credible  religion,  despite  its  evident 
origin  as  a  crude  nature  worship  blended  later  with 
veneration  of  the  Imperial  line.  Although  their  works 
are  too  abstruse  to  reach  a  wide  audience,  they  have 
had  a  temporary  effect  on  a  number  of  younger 
students  to  whom  the  notion  of  evolving  a  religion 
which  would  enthrone  their  own  emperors  as  heredi¬ 
tary  demigods  and  pontiffs  makes  a  seductive  appeal. 
Cabinet  ministers  like  Mr.  Tokonami  have  in  one 
breath  vigorously  denied  that  patriotic  Shinto  was 
a  religion,  and  in  the  next  they  have  encouraged  at 
Shinto  shrines  ceremonies  and  prayers  which  have 
all  the  earmarks  of  religion.  The  most  striking  em¬ 
bodiment  of  this  two-faced  cult  is  the  imposing  Meiji 
Shrine,  erected  in  Tokyo  two  years  ago  at  a  cost  of 
several  million  dollars,  and  visited  already  by  millions 
of  worshipers.  It  is  evident  that  nationalistic  Shinto 
will  long  hold  a  prominent  place  in  popular  affection, 
blocking  the  way  for  a  higher  faith. 

III.  CONFUCIANISM  AND  CHINESE  CULTURE  IN  JAPAN 

Chinese  civilization  came  in  the  fifth  century  to 
the  tribes  of  the  Island  Empire  like  some  grand 
galleon  of  the  Spanish  Main,  laden  with  all  the 
treasures  of  a  culture  which  was  old  when  Moses  was 
born.  Chief  among  the  treasures  were  the  Chinese 
classics,  including  the  ethical  and  political  system 
summarized  by  Confucius  and  Mencius.  They  brought 
a  sudden  widening  of  horizon  and  enrichment  of  life 
to  the  Japanese,  much  as  the  revival  of. Greek' learning 
did  to  medieval  Europe.  The  entire  system  of 


IT4 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


government  was  recast  after  Chinese  models.  Codes 
of  law  were  drafted,  literature  and  the  line  arts  arose. 
But  in  the  long  run  perhaps  the  greatest  gift  of  China 
to  Japan  was  an  ethical  system.  Confucianism  is  a 
system  of  ethics  and  civics  inseparably  combined. 
Underlying  the  whole  system  is  an  indefinite  faith  in 
the  order  or  will  of  the  universe  which  is  called 
Heaven.  Confucius  once  said,  “Honor  the  gods,  but 
keep  far  from  them,”  for  his  central  interest  was 
man;  he  ignored  alike  the  physical  world  and  the 
ultimate  problems  of  theology.  Right  relations  to 
parents,  to  superiors,  to  brothers,  and  to  friends,  in 
accordance  with  the  principles  of  righteousness, 
benevolence,  and  reason,  which  are  embedded  in 
human  nature  and  in  the  universe — these  are  the 
essence  of  Confucianism. 

But,  like  everything  else  that  they  touch,  the 
Japanese  were  not  content  to  accept  Confucianism 
without  adapting  it  to  their  own  traditions  and  social 
demands.  The  result  is  that  while  in  China  filial 
piety  was  the  cardinal  virtue,  in  Japan  loyalty  took 
precedence.  This  was  a  natural  accommodation  to 
the  requirements  of  a  military  and  feudal  stage  of 
development. 

Furthermore,  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
*  centuries  Japanese  scholars  magnified  the  more  mys¬ 
tical  and  spiritual  elements  in  Confucianism.  Promi¬ 
nent  among  these  scholars  were  Toju,  the  Sage  of 
Omi,  his  disciple  Banzan,  and  Muro  Kyuso. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  need  which  Confucianism 
supplied  was  the  idea  of  obligation,  which  like  every- 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  115 

thing  else  was  vague  and  unsystematic  in  Shinto. 
Confucianism  also  emphasized  the  sacredness  of 
family  and  civic  relationships,  and  thus  tended  to 
maintain  a  sane  balance  even  when  Buddhism  with 
its  ascetic  and  anti-social  influence  was  in  the 
ascendant.  Confucianism,  as  it  were,  injected  iron 
into  the  blood;  it  put  re-enforced  concrete  in  the 
social  system. 

Bushido,  or  “The  Way  of  the  Knight; ”  represented 
the  result  of  the  blending  of  Confucian  Meals  with 
the  native  warrior  ideals  of  Japan  known  as  Yamato- 
damashii,  which  means  the  “Spirit  of  Yamato,”  or 
Japan,  for  Yamato  was  the  name  of  the  tribe  which 
first  subdued  the  greater  part  of  the  country  and 
formed  an  empire.  Bushido,  like  the  English  ideal  of 
a  gentlemen,  was  elusive,  but  it  represented  that  fine 
combination  of  self-obliterating  loyalty,  of  contempt 
of  suffering  and  poverty  and  death,  of  love  for  lord 
and  native  land,  which  made  the  medieval  Japanese 
knight  a  close  rival  of  the  flower  of  European  chivalry. 
Being  the  ideal  of  the  ruling  class,  Bushido  was 
unconsciously  imbibed  by  the  mass  of  the  people,  and 
even  now  it  influences  the  conduct  of  every  loval 
Japanese.  But  Bushido,  like  Confucianism,  was  the 
flower  of  an  earlier  age,  when  society  was  organized 
on  the  basis  of  family  and  clan,  and  when  farming 
and  fighting  were  the  two  great  industries.  It  exalts 
the  clan  and  the  family,  but  minimizes  individuality. 
Even  its  apologists  admit  that  it  is  a  pitiful  misfit  in 
the  complex  life  of  modern  Japan.  It  has  no  answers 
to  the  perplexing  problems  of  an  industrial,  cosmo- 


1 16  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

politan  age,  and  leaves  unmet  the  deep  demand  of  the 
heart  for  a  rational  and  powerful  faith.* 

It  will  be  evident  that  Confucianism  is  not,  properly 
speaking,  a  religion.  Hence  it  has  never  been  a  rival 
to  Buddhism  or  Christianity.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
supplies  invaluable  elements  which  Christianity  can 
build  upon.  In  fact,  nearly  all  the  early  leaders  of 
the  Christian  Church  in  Japan,  and  a  large  proportion 
of  the  Christian  writers,  preachers,  and  educators 
today  were  brought  up  on  Confucianism.  Acute 
observers  believe  that  without  a  substructure  of  Con- 
fucian  training  the  character  of  Japanese  Christians 
is  likely  to  lack  the  clean-cut  ideals  of  duty  and  loyalty, 
and  the  delicate  sense  of  honor  which  mark  the  finer 
Japanese  personalities. 

IV.  THE  BLESSING  AND  BANE  OF  BUDDHISM 

Buddhism,  from  the  first,  stood  sharply  contrasted 
with  Shinto.  But  the  very  fact  that  it  was  so  different 
and  professed  to  supplement  and  not  to  compete  with 
or  destroy  Shinto  had  much  to  do  with  its  rapid  and 
complete  triumph.  Chinese  literature  had  preceded 

Buddhism’s  entry  into  Japan  by  a  century  and  had 

*«* 

paved  the  way  for  it.  When  Buddhism  came,  by  way 
of  Korea  in  552  a.  d.,  it  brought  as  its  dowry  not  only 
a  fresh  access  of  Chinese  culture,  but  also  the  arts  of 
India  and  Korea,  for  in  that  age,  Buddhism  was  as 
intimately  bound  up  with  all  aspects  of  culture  as  was 
Christianity  in  medieval  Europe.  As  every  student 
of  Japanese  art  knows,  he  cannot  appreciate  its  subtler 
*  Imai,  J. :  Bushido  from  the  Christian  Point  of  View . 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  117 

meanings  without  a  considerable  knowledge  of  Bud¬ 
dhism.  Like  the  cathedrals  of  Europe,  the  most 
exquisite  architectural  creations  in  Japan  were  the 
temples  erected  for  Buddhist  worship.  On  their  dec¬ 
oration  artists  lavished  their  lives,  deriving  many  of 
their  subjects  from  the  literature  and  symbolism  of 
Buddhism.  Most  of  the  pioneers  of  letters  in  Japan 
were  Buddhist  priests.  Well-nigh  the  only  schools 
for  centuries  were  those  conducted  by  priests  in  the 
temples  and  monasteries  or  those  taught  by  them  in 
the  palaces  of  provincial  lords.  Bridge  building  and 
the  control  of  river  torrents  were  also  introduced  by 
the  priests.  Today  Buddhism  is  the  creed  of  half 
Japan,  a  palliative  for  aching  but  credulous  hearts, 
and  a  bulwark  against  change.  Any  understanding, 
therefore,  of  Japanese  character  and  any  program  for 
the  future  must  reckon  with  Buddhism. 

1.  Changes  in  Buddhism 

Japanese  Buddhism  is  different  from  that  in  China 
and  still  more  different  from  original  Buddhism  in 
India,  for,  like  a  long  river,  Buddhism  has  taken 
its  color  and  shape  from  the  consistency  of  the  banks 
through  which  it  has  flowed.  Original  Buddhism 
might  be  called  the  Protestantism  of  Brahminism ;  it 
was  a  recoil  against  empty  speculation,  lifeless 
ceremonies,  and  priestly  tyranny.  Its  Luther  was 
Prince  Siddartha,  Gautama  Buddha,  the  Enlightened 
One.  The  many  gods  of  Hinduism  and  the  Absolute 
of  the  Vedanta  alike  he  rejected.  He  fled  from  his 
family  and  all  social  obligations  and,  as  a  wandering 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


1 18 

ascetic,  tried  to  lighten  the  misery  of  existence  by 
kindly  ministry.  At  length,  having  found  enlighten¬ 
ment  by  the  expulsion  of  all  desire,  he  preached  this 
discovery  to  his  fellows.  He  had  not  been  long  dead 
before  his  remarkable  character  and  teachings  led 
his  disciples  to  exalt  him  into  an  object  of  worship-, 
notwithstanding  he  had  himself  cast  away  all  faith 
in  the  gods  and  had  preached  salvation  by  self- 
conquest  and  good  works.  But  with  the  passing  of 
the  centuries  and  the  spread  of  Buddhism  into  Tibet 
and  China  there  developed  a  polytheistic  system,  an 
ornate  ritual,  and  a  monkish  hierarchy  so  intricate 
and  so  contradictory  to  Guatama's  original  teaching 
that  he  would  have  been  shocked  beyond  words  had 
he  come  back  to  earth  and  witnessed  the  amazing 
transformation.  Only  in  the  Southern  Buddhism  of 
Ceylon,  idealized  in  Sir  Edwin  Arnold’s  The  Light 
of  Asia ,  and  represented  by  the  Zen  Sect  of  Japan, 
was  the  ethical  agnosticism  of  Gautama  measurably 
preserved. 

2.  Prominent  Sects  in  Japan 

Buddhism  as  it  was  brought  to  Japan  in  the  sixth 
and  later  centuries  was  identical  with  that  in  vogue 
in  Korea  and  China.  Its  priests  came  armed  with 
a  vast  library  of  divergent  sutras  and  commentaries 
which  became  the  bases  of  a  number  of  rival  sects. 
Most  of  these  sects  have  persisted,  and  new  ones 
original  to  Japan  have  developed,  so  that  today  there 
are  twelve  chief  sects.  They  represent  the  extremes  of 
the  northern  polytheistic  and  the  southern  atheistic 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  119 

and  ethical  school.  The  ethical  school  is  represented 
by  the  Zen  Sect  which  came  from  China  in  the  eighth 
century.  It  exalts  contemplation  and  intuition.  It 
is  akin  to  Stoicism  in  its  superiority  to  hardship 
and  its  struggle  for  enlightenment  by  concentration 
of  thought,  especially  by  fixing  the  eyes  on  one  spot, 
such  as  the  end  of  the  nose,  until  ecstasy  and 
enlightenment  are  induced.  Zen  has  appealed  power¬ 
fully  to  soldiers.  It  exalts  self-reliance  and  self- 
mastery,  but  has  no  gospel  for  men  in  the  toils  of  sin 
nor  does  it  impel  men  to  spend  themselves  for  the 
regeneration  of  society. 

Most  of  the  other  sects  are  dominated  by  the 

* 

doctrine  of  salvation  by  faith,  which  is  preached  in 
its  most  pronounced  and  aggressive  form  by  the  Jodo 
and  Shin  sects.  They  all  maintain  that  Buddhism  has 
two  aspects :  the  esoteric,  for  people  of  critical 
intelligence,  the  other  for  simple  minds  dependent 
upon  the  sensuous  appeal  of  reward  and  punishment. 
Instead  of  an  absorption  into  the  absolute,  the  glowing 
picture  of  a  Western  Paradise  is  held  before  their 
eyes.  Instead  of  rigorous  self-discipline  indefinitely 
prolonged,  they  are  offered  salvation  by  the  mere 
repetition  of  the  magic  name  of  Amida,  the  all-pitiful. 
The  tradition  is  that  ages  ago  Amida  lived  a  perfect 
human  life  as  a  monk,  and  when  he  was  about  to 
return  to  his  divine  abode  he  was  so  smitten  with  pity 
for  suffering  humanity  that  he  vowed  not  to  abandon 
them  until  by  infinite  suffering  he  had  heaped  up 
merit  sufficient  to  save  all  mankind. 

These  Amida  sects  were  established  and  elaborated 


T  20 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


by  two  men  of  remarkable  character  and  ability  who 
flourished  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  the 
first  named  Honen  and  the  second,  his  disciple 
Shinran.  In  addition  to  magnifying  reliance  upon  the 
merits  of  Amida,  Shinran’s  most  original  contribution 
to  Buddhism  was  the  insistence  upon  the  right  of 
priests  to  marry  and  to  eat  meat.  He  founded  the 
sect  called  Shin  Shu.  Its  tremendous  hold  upon  the 
masses  is  symbolized  by  the  two  magnificent  temples 
which  first  strike  the  eye  of  the  visitor  to  Kyoto, 
known  as  Eastern  and  Western  Honganji.  When 
the  newest  of  these  temples  was  erected  some  thirty 
years  ago  at  a  cost  of  several  million  dollars,  two 
of  the  cables  used  in  the  temple  were  braided  from 
the  hair  of  millions  of  devotees. 

Tenderness  and  mercy  are  among  the  chief  virtues 
springing  from  Buddhism.  They  are  embodied  in  the 
god  Jizo,  the  companion  and  guardian  of  little  chil¬ 
dren  and  the  conqueror  of  the  powers  of  death.  He 
appears  to  represent  much  the  same  response  to  human 
longings  as  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

A  few  years  after  Shinran,  there  arose  another 
powerful  personality,  Nichiren,  who  founded  the 
sect  known  by  his  name.  He  recoiled  from  the 
doctrine  of  Amidaism.  It  was  too  personal  and 
theistic.  With  the  intimate  Japanese  feeling  for  nature, 
he  demanded  a  pantheistic  explanation  of  the  uni¬ 
verse;  so  that  in  his  system  beasts  and  inanimate 
objects  were  represented  as  capable  of  attaining 
Buddhahood  or  enlightenment  after  various  trans¬ 
migrations.  He  also  exalted  the  Sanscrit  sutra  called 


TWO  VETERAN  CHRISTIAN  LEADERS  TRAINED  IN  THE  “YOKOHAMA  BAND.  AT  THE  LEFT,  THE  REV.  MASAHISA 
UEMURA,  D.  D.,  PASTOR,  PREACHER,  EDITOR,  AND  EDUCATOR,  AND  CHAIRMAN  OF  THE  STANDING  COMMITTEE  OF 
NIHON  KIRISUTO  KYOKAI.  AT  THE  RIGHT,  THE  REV.  KAJINOSUKE  IBUKA,  D.  D.,  EDUCATOR  AND  ADMINIS¬ 
TRATOR  AND  NATIONAL  CHAIRMAN  OF  THE  Y.  M.  C.  A.  AND  OF  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  ASSOCIATION 


A  JAPANESE  PASTOR  AND  HIS  FAMILY.  THE  REV.  HIROSHI  HATANAKA 
WAS  EDUCATED  IN  AMERICA.  HE  WAS  FORMERLY  A  BOYS’  WORKER, 
NOW  PASTOR  OF  KYOTO  KUMIAI  CHURCH,  ONE  OF  THE  STRONGEST 

CHURCHES  IN  CENTRAL  JAPAN 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  121 

Saddharma  Pandarika  and  taught  his  followers  to 
chant,  “Hail !  O  Sutra  of  the  Lotus  of  the  Wonderful 
Law/’  instead  of  the  phrase  endlessly  repeated  by 
Shin  believers,  “Hail !  Amida  Buddha !”  With  respect 
to  salvation,  Nichiren  taught,  like  the  Southern 
School,  that  it  could  be  attained  by  one’s  own  efforts 
if  one  reverenced  the  law  and  was  strictly  orthodox. 
From  the  first,  Nichiren  has  been  a  crusading  sect, 
waging  uncompromising  war  against  rivals. 

Nichiren  himself  was  a  fiery  patriot  with  a  deep 
faith  in  the  common  man  and  an  intolerance  of  every¬ 
thing  foreign.  At  the  time  of  the  attack  by  the 
Armada  of  Kublai  Khan,  he  rallied  the  defenders  like 
a  Peter  the  Hermit  or  a  John  Knox,  and  the  heroic 
statue  erected  in  his  honor  among  the  pines  on  the 
coast  near  Fukuoka  commemorates  alike  the  protec¬ 
tion  of  the  gods  and  the  labors  of  Nichiren.  With 
characteristic  elasticity  the  Nichiren  sect  attached 
itself  to  the  Shinto  belief  in  the  rice  god  Inari,  who 
is  supposed  to  punish  those  who  offend  him  by 
inflicting  fox-possession.  The  Nichiren  priests  claim 
power  to  exorcise  these  evil  spirits,  much  like  the 
soothsayers  and  medicine  men  of  primitive  tribes. 
Because  of  its  intolerance  and  superstition  ancl  blind 
patriotism,  Nichiren  has  been  a  stubborn  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  Christianity. 

3.  Power  of  accommodation 

As  already  pointed  out,  Buddhism  found  Shinto 
in  possession  of  the  field  upon  its  arrival  from  the 
continent,  but  instead  of  denouncing  it,  the  shrewd 


E-Jap 


TOO 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


priests  under  the  leadership  of  Kobo  Daishi  declared 
the  Shinto  gods  to  be  merely  manifestations  of  the 
Buddhist  deities.  So  plausibly  did  they  manipulate 
this  idea  that  it  was  generally  accepted.  The  result 
was  the  composite  system  called  Ryobu- Shinto  or 
“Two-fold  Way  of  the  Gods.”  The  effects  of  this 
combination  are  evident  today  in  the  overlaying  of 
some  of  the  Shinto  shrines  with  Buddhist  ornamenta¬ 
tion.  But  at  the  Restoration  of  1868  with  its  revival 
of  pure  Shinto,  Ryobu-Shinto  fell  under  the  ban  and 
most  of  the  Shinto  shrines  were  restored  to  their 
pristine  simplicity. 

Buddhism  has  always  been  like  an  enormous  sponge 
capable  of  absorbing  everything  it  touched  and  of 
conforming  to  every  new  environment.  Its  leaders 
in  Japan,  therefore,  as  Christianity  has  prospered, 
have  set  themselves  to  borrow  Christian  methods  and 
ideas.  Many  temples  now  have  Buddhist  preaching 
services  and  Sunday  schools.  There  are  Young  Men’s 
Buddhist  Associations  with  dormitories  similar  to 
those  started  by  the  Y.M.C.A.,  and  many  of  the  sects 
have  printed  selections  from  their  sacred  writings  in 
volumes  bound  in  close  imitation  of  the  Christian 
Bible.  Even  the  Zen  Sect,  which  depends  so  much 
upon  intuition  and  so  little  upon  literature,  has 
published  such  a  book.  More  striking  still  are  the 
Buddhist  hymns  modeled  after  Christian  hymns,  with 
slight  changes,  such  as,  “O,  for  a  thousand  tongues 
to  sing  my  blessed  Buddha’s  praise/’  and  “All  hail 
the  power  of  Buddha’s  name!”  Thus  far  the  Shin 
and  the  Nichiren  sects  seem  to  be  the  only  ones  that 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  123 

are  undertaking  foreign  missionary  work,  and  for 
the  most  part  their  activities  are  confined  to  com¬ 
munities  where  there  are  Japanese  colonies. 

The  chameleon-like  accommodation  of  Buddhism  to 
its  surroundings  and  to  the  vocabulary  of  each  new 
day  makes  it  comparatively  easy  for  the  Buddhist 
apologist  to  maintain  that  Buddhism,  after  all,  contains 
the  essential  ideas  of  Christianity  and  that  it  has 
other  ideas  which  adapt  it  better  to  the  oriental  mind. 
Let  us  remember  that  the  adequacy  and  excellence 
of  any  religion  will  not  be  settled  by  argument,  but 
by  the  try-out  of  real  life;  and  that  human  nature  at 
bottom  is  so  nearly  alike,  East  and  West,  that  it  will 
demand  and  respond  to  the  same  fundamental  truths 
and  appeals.  Having  laid  down  these  principles,  it 
will  be  illuminating  to  contrast  the  two  faiths  as 
fairly  as  may  be  in  brief  compass,  even  though  words 
are  admittedly  inadequate  to  define  life,  and  Chris¬ 
tianity  is  primarily  a  life  rather  than  definitions  or 
precepts. 

V.  BUDDHIST  AND  CHRISTIAN  TEACHING  AND 
EFFECTS  CONTRASTED 

Original  Buddhism  grew  out  of  the  life  and 
teaching  of  a  noble  Indian  prince,  who  loved  men 
and  made  works  of  self-denying  benevolence  almost 
a  religion,  though  he  was  an  agnostic;  but  the  Bud¬ 
dhism  which  has  chiefly  prevailed  in  East  Asia  has 
been  a  speculative  philosophy  with  only  slight  his¬ 
torical  connections,  and  with  some  borrowing  from 
early  Christian  thought  regarding  salvation  by  faith. 


124 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


Christianity  in  all  its  forms  is  based  upon  the  historical 
fact  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  ideal  man,  the  revealer  and 
incarnation  of  God.  Original  Buddhism  offers  a 
nebulous  Absolute,  absorption  into  which  constitutes 
the  goal  of  all  existence.  Christianity  preaches  the 
Holy  Father  and  Saviour,  harmony  with  whose  will 
opens  the  door  to  fulness  of  life  in  this  world  and 
forever.  Popular  Buddhism  points  men  to  a  paradise 
hereafter,  and  minimizes  family  and  social  obligations. 
Christ  invites  men  of  all  races  and  conditions  to 
enter  the  Kingdom  of  God  and  so  to  impregnate  the 
family  and  other  social  institutions  with  the  spirit 
of  Jesus  that  they  shall  all  be  built  into  that  Kingdom. 
Buddhism  maintains  that  evil  and  sin  are  illusions  to 
be  explained  away  or  escaped,  either  by  mastering 
desire  or  by  supinely  trusting  the  merits  of  Amida. 
Christ  shows  that  sin  is  a  fact,  but  to  be  overcome 
by  God  working  in  men,  and  requiring  effort  by  men 
themselves,  as  well  as  trust  in  Christ.  Buddhism 
has  emphasized  asceticism  and  flight  from  evil  instead 
of  fighting  to  replace  evil  with  good.  This  sentence 
of  a  Buddhist  teacher  is  characteristic:  “Religion 
is  a  device  to  bring  peace  of  mind  in  the  midst  of 
things  as  they  are.”  Some  of  the  temples  have  their 
funds  invested  in  houses  licensed  for  evil  purposes, 
and  social  reforms  have  never  secured  the  support 
of  any  considerable  number  of  Buddhist  leaders,  but 
have  generally  been  initiated  by  Christians  and  liberal- 
minded  men  bred  in  Confucian  ethics.  Buddhism 
minimizes  personality,  because  it  has  no  clear  revela¬ 
tion  of  the  Heavenly  Father  in  whose  image  man  has 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS 


125 


been  made.  Particularly  does  Buddhism  degrade 
woman  by  denying  her  equality  with  man  and  requir¬ 
ing  her  to  go  through  a  longer  process  of  rebirth  in 
order  that  she  may,  by  becoming  a  man,  ultimately 
be  saved.  Buddhism  promises  salvation  without  effec¬ 
tive  repentance  because  it  has  no  clear  doctrine  of  sin. 
It  encourages  vows  and  pilgrimages,  formulas  end¬ 
lessly  repeated,  and  votive  offerings  in  place  of  a  new 
life  dedicated  to  the  will  of  God.  As  President  Ebina 
has  pointed  out:  “Buddhism  and  Confucianism  give 
no  impulse  of  service  for  outside  peoples  or  of  world 
responsibility,  whereas  Christianity  has  filled  us  with 
a  sense  of  world  stewardship.” 

In  the  most  vital  aspects  of  life  Buddhism  leaves 
an  aching  void.  Girist  brings  the  satisfying  gospel 
of  the  universal  Father  suffering  with  and  for  his 
children.  Instead  of  pessimistic  condemnation  of  the 
world  on  the  one  hand  or  eas)r  self-indulgence  on 
the  other,  Christ  brings  the  vision  of  the  Kingdom 
of  God,  an  inspiring  ideal  toward  whose  realization 
every  disciple  can  make  a  contribution.  The  spirit 
of  resignation  under  the  hand  of  destiny,  the  tender 
pity  toward  suffering  among  animals  and  men  alike, 
the  consciousness  of  being  knit  into  the  intricate  fabric 
of  the  universe,  all  these  are  beautiful  legacies  of 
Buddhism,  by  all  means  to  be  cherished,  but  sup¬ 
plemented  and  vitalized  by  the  gospel  of  the  Girist- 
Iike  God. 

We  have  by  no  means  said  all  that  could  be  said 
to  bring  out  the  strength  of  Buddhism  or  the  other 
faiths.  But  the  fairness  of  our  summary  is  confirmed 


126  CREATIVE  .FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

by  these  words  used  by  the  professor  of  the  Science 
of  Religion  in  Tokyo  Imperial  University,  Dr.  M. 
Anesaki  :*  “Confucianism  is  a  humanitarian  ethics, 
but  being  an  elaboration  of  a  patriarchal  system  of 
politics  and  morals,  its  teachings  are  peculiarly  static 
and  formal.  Shinto,  being  a  remnant  of  ancient 
nature  worship  and  of  the  cult  of  the  spirits,  cannot 
hope  to  stand  the  pressure  of  science,  while  its  com¬ 
munal  ethics  is  struggling  for  life  or  death  in  face  of 
the  industrial  regime.  One  religion  that  remains  in 
the  held  with  some  hope  is  Buddhism.  But  it  is 
hopelessly  divided,  its  organizations  are  parochial, 
and  its  tenets  too  often  metaphysical; ”  These  are 
the  words  of  an  exceptionally  intelligent,  fair-minded 
scholar  who  might  be  called  a  liberal  scientific  Buddhist 
with  Christian  leanings. 

VI.  MODERN  SECTS 

The  inability  of  the  old  religions  to  satisfy  the 
people  has  been  strikingly  shown  by  the  appearance 
of  numerous  popular  sects  during  the  past  few 
decades.  They  are  nearly  all  offshoots  of  Shinto, 
with  Buddhist  and  Taoist  elements  intertwined. 
Among  the  most  prominent  are:  Tenrikyo,  which  has 
3,000,000  adherents,  and  21,000  teachers  and  preach¬ 
ers;  Taiseikyo,  which  is  reputed  to  have  400,000 
adherents  and  5,000  teachers;  Konkokyo,  which  has 
nearly  600,000  adherents  and  1,150  teachers;  Ontake- 
kyo,  which  has  1,000,000  adherents,  and  9,000  teach- 

*The  Social  and  Religious  Problems  of  the  Orient.  The  Ear! 
Lectures  for  1921,  at  Pacific  School  of  Religion. 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  127 

ers.  Most  of  them  emphasize  faith-healing  and  exalt 
national  traditions.  They  have  built  up  a  miscellan¬ 
eous  body  of  doctrine  which  is  polytheistic  and  not  of 
a  high  moral  order. 

The  most  noted  of  the  new  sects  is  Omotokyo, 
which  arose  some  thirty  years  ago  at  Ayabe,  through 
the  revelations  which  an  unlettered  old  woman 
claimed  to  have  received.  Later  her  son-in-lawi 
supplied  the  brains  to  elaborate  the  doctrine  and  to 
organize  the  movement,  until  by  1921  it  had  attracted 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  believers,  and  had  amassed 
considerable  property.  It  had  even  gone  so  far  as 
to  establish  a  daily  newspaper  in  Osaka,  the  editor 
of  which  was  a  retired  general  who  had  doubtless 
been  attracted  by  the  chauvinistic  patriotism  engen¬ 
dered  by  its  leaders.  It  was  a  strange  compound 
of  superstition,  mesmerism,  faith-healing,  and  patriot¬ 
ism.  When,  however,  the  leaders  went  so  far  as 
to  proclaim  that  the  capital  of  Japan  and  the  world 
would  be  at  Ayabe,  and  that  the  high  priests  of  the 
sect  were  the  inspired  guides  of  all  men  in  every 
relation  of  life,  the  government  authorities  arrested 
the  leaders  and  sentenced  the  chief  high  priest  to 
five  years  in  prison;  and,  not  content  with  that,  they 
had  the  chief  shrine  razed  to  the  ground,  so  that  the 
whole  sect  has  been  disrupted. 

The  unquenchable  thirst  of  the  more  intelligent 
young  men  and  women  for  some  satisfying  faith  is 
evident  to  anyone  who  talks  with  them.  One  writer, 
Ehara,  who  has  let  his  imagination  play  freely  on  the 
stories  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  has  issued 


128 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


three  bulky  volumes  which  have  found  a  large  reading 
public.  He  is  not  a  Christian,  and  his  books  distort 
some  of  the  facts  and  doctrines,  but  on  the  whole 
they  may  help  to  lead  men  to  the  light.  The  amazing 
popularity  of  Rev.  T.  Kagawa’s  writings  is  another 
indication  of  the  widespread  demand,  and  still 
another  is  Kurata’s  life  of  the  great  Buddhist  leader 
of  the  twelfth  century,  Shinran. 

VII.  PROPHETS  AND  GUIDES  OF  YOUNG  JAPAN 

The  dominant  impression  of  the  religious  situation 
in  Japan  in  these  days  is  that  it  resembles  the 
confluence  of  a  multitude  of  streams;  but  one  current 
flows  clear  in  the  midst  of  the  turgid  waters,  that  is, 
the  life  and  teaching  of  Jesus.  The  appeal  of  Jesus 
to  Japanese  of  a  mystical  turn  of  mind  has  been 
mediated  most  powerfully  by  men  like  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi  and  Count  Leo  Tolstoy.  A  number  of  the 
modern  prophets  who  are  officially  connected  with 
neither  Buddhism  nor  Christianity  acknowledge  both 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  and  the  historic  Gautama  as  their 
masters.  They  recoil  from  the  worship  of  mammon 
and  the  complex  artificiality  and  irreverence  of  the 
feverish  life  around  them.  We  cannot  do  better  than 
glance  at  the  character  and  teaching  of  some  of  these 
men,  for  they  are  symptomatic  of  the  quest  of  the 
Holy  Grail  by  multitudes  of  Japanese  youth. 

One  of  them  is  R.  Tsunashima,  a  mystical  and 
unconventional  Christian  who  died  several  years  ago. 
From  a  book  written  on  his  death-bed,  note  these  rapt 
sentences,  as  rendered  by  Professor  Anesaki: 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  129 

How  often  has  my  heart  beaten  in  joy  facing  a  light — the 
light  of  finding  my  God  seated  in  the  innermost  sanctuary 
of  my  sincere  heart !  The  God  I  have  then  seen  was  no 

more  the  old  traditional  idol  or  an  abstract  ideal . 

My  former  experience  of  seeing  God  was  sure  and  significant, 
yet  it  was  subtle  and  elusive.  Now  it  is  quite  otherwise. 
My  God,  the  God  of  heaven  and  earth,  has  now  appeared 
face  to  face,  like  a  fact  of  intense  daylight,  as  a  fact 
astonishing  and  thrilling.  .  .  .  Blessed  is  he  who  believes 

without  seeing,  and  more  blessed  is  he  who  believes  by 
having  seen  with  the  inner  eye.  ...  I  am  a  son  of  God. 
and  share  the  government  of  human  life,  of  heaven  and 
earth.  ...  I  must  live  like  a  son  of  God,  and  be  worthy 
of  sonship.* 

Another  is  Y.  Miyazaki,  a  liberal  Buddhist,  who 
111  1921  published  a  tribute  to  St.  Francis,  entitled, 
The  Adoration  of  Holy  Poverty ,  in  which  we  find 
these  penetrating  comments  on  modern  life: 

There  can  never  be  an  end  to  conflicts  in  a  society  divided 
into  classes  as  we  see  it  today.  There  is  never  saturation 
in  the  claims  of  rights,  just  as  in  the  calls  of  responsibilities, 
for  human  desires  and  demands  expand  indefinitely.  The 
final  solution  lies  nowhere  else  than  in  a  total  abnegation  of 
self  in  an  ecstasy,  in  “all  or  nothing.”  ...  St.  Francis’s 
whole  life  was  a  realization  of  his  gospel  of  love  and  toil. 
His  life  was  pure  poetry.  He  saw  God,  communed  with 
Him,  by  serving  the  afflicted  souls  of  human  beings.  How¬ 
ever  obstinate  a  soul  might  be,  it  could  not  but  be  restored 
to  its  original  purity  on  encountering  his  loving  service, 
which  fused  everything  it  touched  into  the  white  heat  of 
love.  Therein  was  his  life,  his  faith,  grand  and  sublime,  as 
shown  in  his  deeds. 

Still  another  is  Tenko  Nishida,  who,  after  long 
searching,  dedicated  himself  to  a  life  of  renunciation. 
He  knew  almost  nothing  of  St.  Francis,  but  to  a 

*  Quoted  from  Social  and  Religious  Problems  of  Asia  Today. 


ISO 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


marked  degree  adopted  his  principles  of  love  and  uncal¬ 
culating  service.  Nishida’s  career  is  so  significant  that 
I  will  quote  from  Professor  Anesaki’s  account  of  it: 

He  was  born  and  grew  up  a  Buddhist,  He  had  once  been 
an  industrial  enterpriser;  but  his  failure,  due  chiefly  to  the 
difficulties  and  pressure  brought  upon  him  by  capitalists  and 
workmen,  plunged  him  into  despair  and  vice.  Even  in  the 
pit  of  despair  he  never  ceased  to  meditate  on  the  meaning  of 
life,  and  particularly  on  the  foundation  of  the  existing 
economic  system.  In  the  depth  of  failure  and  agony  he  de¬ 
cided  to  renounce  everything,  his  family  and  his  own  self, 
too.  For  a  while  he  lived  like  a  beggar  or  hermit,  without 
paying  heed  as  to  how  to  feed  himself;  still  he  was  able  to 
keep  alive  somehow.  One  day  he  picked  up  the  grains  of  rice 
strewn  on  the  street  and  sustained  life.  Like  a  flash,  an 
idea  came  to  him,  that  man  lives,  not  by  the  virtue  of  his 
own  merit,  but  by  the  gift  of  Nature  and  that  what  he 
deemed  to  be  his  work  and  possession  was  not  in  fact  his 
own,  but  a  free  gift  of  grace.  Then  he  served  a  friend’s 
family  by  taking  up  menial  work  and  demanded  nothing  in 
return  but  just  a  bare  living.  There  he  himself  was  almost 
amazed  to  see  the  profoundly  edifying  effect  of  his  humble 
service  upon  himself  as  well  as  upon  the  whole  family  of 
his  friend,  including  its  servants,  because  his  life  inspired 
the  whole  circle  with  a  bountiful  spirit  of  ardor  in  mutual 
service. 

This,  together  with  his  meditation  in  solitude,  accom¬ 
plished  a  revolutionary  conversion  in  his  spirit  and  life, 
and  thereafter  he  has  continued  to  live  up  to  his  principle 
of  non-possession  and  service,  going  from  one  place  to 
another.  He  does  not  know  how  to  name  his  religion  or  his 
God,  nor  try  to  formulate  his  ideas.  But  he  shows  his 
Buddhist  heritage  in  often  calling  the  final  resort  of  his 
life  the  ‘‘Universal  Light,  the  Source  of  all  being,  the  Giver 
of  grace.”  ....  Nishida  is  now  proceeding  to  the 
practical  question  of  reforming  the  economic  life  of  modern 
society  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  service  and 
non-possession.  He  seems  to  have  considerable  organizing 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  131 


talent,  and  his  operation  of  a  mine  started  a  few  years  ago 
is  a  matter  of  keen  interest  to  all  observers.  Some  of 
his  fellows  have  organized  factories,  somewhat  along  the 
line  of  cooperative  societies.  They  insist  on  non-possession 
and  regard  these  properties  as  mandates  entrusted  to  them 
for  serving  mankind. 

One-sided  though  men  like  Nishida  may  be,  they 
are  among  the  powerful  upbuilding  forces  at  work 
among  the  Japanese  people.  It  is  the  part  of  the 
Christian  not  to  decry,  but  to  encourage  them  when¬ 
ever  they  are  building  on  reality,  and  to  share  with 
them  the  larger  truth. 

The  last  of  the  modern  prophets  to  be  mentioned 
is  T.  Arishima,  who,  though  still  a  follower  of  Jesus, 
has  left  the  Christian  Church  in  disgust  at  its  ineffici¬ 
ency  and  the  hypocrisy  of  some  of  its  members,  but 
who  preaches  a  life  of  individual  development  by 
virtue  of  complete  love  as  exemplified  by  Jesus.  In 
his  volume  on  All-embracing  Love  he  strikes  this 
keynote :  '‘Christ  embraced  into  his  supreme  love  all 
mankind,  past,  present,  and  future.  He  could  not 
have  done  otherwise.  That  he  has  never  ceased  to 
give  shows  that  he  found  great  satisfaction  in  the 
endless  expansion  of  his  self.  Did  he  not  say,  ‘Love 
thy  neighbor  as  thyself’  ?  He  was  the  Man  who 
experienced  most  fully  the  joy  of  loving  self,  and 
therefore  loved  others  and  embraced  them  all  into 
himself.  That  he  exhorted  men  to  follow  him  shows 
that  he  was  convinced  of  the  possibility  on  the  part 
of  all  men,  mean  and  foolish  like  myself,  of  treading 
the  same  pathway.”  Mr.  Arishima  has  a  considerable 
number  of  scattered  followers.  There  are  many  other 


132  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

similar  informal  brotherhoods  of  aspiring  youth,  some 
living  together  in  simple  communal  fashion,  others 
going  about  their  studies  or  their  work  like  other  men, 
but  cherishing  a  great  hope  or  a  great  longing. 

These  earnest  strivings  after  the  light  fill  any 
sympathetic  student  of  Japan  today  with  mingled  joy 
and  sorrow.  The  old  faiths  have  manifestly  left  the 
people  at  best  in  a  hazy  twilight,  at  worst  in  darkness. 
Jesus  Christ  himself,  through  historic  personalities 
like  St.  Francis  and  Luther,  Wesley,  and  Livingstone, 
has  begun  to  shine  through  the  mists.  In  proportion 
as  he  is  adequately  represented  among  the  Japanese 
by  living  ambassadors  they  will  inevitably  kneel  and 
worship.  Indeed,  it  is  not  fanciful  to  assume  that 
if  Confucius  and  Buddha,  Shinran  and  Sontoku 
themselves,  but  knew  Christ  in  all  his  glory,  they 
would  joyfully  acclaim  him  as  the  Sun,  beside  whom 
they  were  but  as  stars. 

None  are  more  ready  than  thoughtful  Japanese 
to  recognize  the  inadequacy  of  the  old  faiths,  even 
when  they  have  been  revived  and  expanded  by 
contact  with  the  spirit  and  teaching  of  Jesus.  I 
remember  some  years  ago  with  what  vehemence  Baron 
Iiiroyuki  Kato,  himself  a  devotee  of  science  and  agnos¬ 
ticism,  denounced  the  hollowness  of  Buddhism  and 
the  rottenness  of  its  priests,  and  at  the  same  time 
praised  the  noble  character  of  Christians,  although 
he  maintained  that  Christianity  itself  was  unpatriotic, 
because  it  exalted  humanity  above  nationality.  About 
the  same  time  I  heard  the  late  Hon.  S.  Ebara,  a 
samurai  of  the  old  school,  and  a  princely  Christian, 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  133 

declare  that  Japan  needed  Christianity  above  anything 
else,  for  although  she  had  developed  excellent  systems 
of  government,  education,  law,  and  industry,  her 
systems  of  morals  and  religion  were  outgrown,  and 
only  Christianity  could  possibly  meet  the  need. 

VIII.  SPIRITUAL  PILGRIMAGES  OF  SOME  JAPANESE 

SEEKERS  AFTER  GOD 

Strange  as  it  may  seem  to  dilettante  students  of 
things  Japanese,  some  of  the  most  scholarly  Japanese 
Christians  have  no  love  for  Buddhism  or  Shinto. 
They  understand  well  the  sublime  aspects  of  the 
speculative  philosophy  of  Buddhism  and  its  softening 
influence  on  Japanese  life.  They  appreciate  the  naive 
simplicity  of  Shinto.  But  in  addresses  they  rarely 
allude  to  either.  Indeed,  I  have  heard  two  of  them, 
one  a  conservative,  the  other  a  liberal  church  leader, 
scout  the  idea  that  the  old  religions  should  be  used 
as  a  stepping-stone  into  Christianity.  To  them  Bud¬ 
dhism  and  Shinto  suggest  the  smothering  of  all  divine 
life  and  practical  value  under  a  blanket  of  corruption 
and  formalism. 

But,  on  the  contrary,  one  finds  a  few  equally  earnest 
Christians  who,  as  Paul  said  of  Judaism,  have  found 
Buddhism  to  be  a  “tutor-slave  to  lead  us  to  Christ; ” 
Such  a  man  is  my  friend,  Mr.  K.  Yamamoto, 
secretary  of  the  Tokyo  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  who  thus  sum¬ 
marizes  his  indebtedness  to  the  older  faiths: 

In  my  early  schooling  I  was  taught  Confucian  morality, 
and  thus  given  a  conception  of  universal  brotherhood. 
Although  different  from  and  vaguer  than  the  Christian 


134 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


teaching,  it.  prepared  me  to  believe  in  human  brotherhood 
and  divine  Fatherhood.  I  was  born  in  a  Buddhist  home, 
and  thus  imbibed  a  faint  idea  of  the  immortality  of  spirits, 
which  tended  to  belief  in  eternal  life.  In  such  a  strong 
Shinto  district,  we  were  all  brought  up  to  go  on  festival 
days  to  the  shrjnes  to  worship  the  gods  and  goddesses,  to 
make  offerings,  and  to  vow  fealty  to  our  rulers.  Reverence 
toward  the  gods  and  loyalty  to  one’s  sovereign  seem  to  me 
essential  preparations  for  the  higher  religious  experiences 
Thus  these  three  fundamental  truths,  universal  brotherhood, 
the  future  life,  and  loyalty  were  all  in  me  awaiting  the 
germinating  touch  of  Christianity. 

The  heart  pilgrimages  of  some  modern  Japanese 
seekers  after  God  will  be  more  convincing  than 
anything  I  could  say.  Let  me  recount  those  of  a 
man  and  a  woman  reared  in  old  Japan,  then  of  a 
young  man  and  a  woman  of  new  Japan,  all  of  them 
alike  unable  to  find  rest  until  they  had  found  Christ. 

A  Merchant  Prince 

The  first  was  Baron  Morimura.  When  I  first  met 
him  sixteen  years  ago  he  was  a  man  of  sixty  with  a 
crown  of  white  hair  and  a  white  beard  framing  a 
placid,  kindly  face;  but  within  was  profound  discontent 
for  he  had  been  reared  a  Confucianist,  and  as  a  wealthy 
merchant  he  had  spent  large  sums  in  disseminating 
the  Confucian  morality  among  his  employees.  But 
he  had  become  convinced  that  Confucianism  alone 
was  not  enough.  He  had  also  delved  into  Buddhism, 
but  had  found  in  its  maze-like  contradictions  and  its 
negative  attitude  no  gospel  for  men  struggling  with 
the  realities  of  modern  life.  Then  he  had  turned  to 
Christianity  in  its  ethical  form,  and  had  engaged  a 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  135 


lecturer  to  preach  a  compound  of  Christianity  and 
Confucianism  to  his  hundreds  of  employees.  But  this 
too  failed  to  satisfy  him,  and  finally,  twelve  years  ago, 
he  turned  full  face  toward  Christ  and  spent  the  last 
decade  of  his  life  as  a  radiant  and  devoted  Christian. 

c 

Merchant  prince  though  he  was,  and  created  a  peer 
of  the  realm  for  his  pioneer  contributions  to  the 
nation’s  industry  and  foreign  trade,  he  loved  to  stand 
before  his  fellow-countrymen  and  in  unaffected  sim¬ 
plicity  bear  testimony  to  the  sufficiency  of  Christ,  and 
Him  alone. 

A  Masterful  Woman's  Search 

Madam  Hirooka  was  one  of  the  most  striking 
characters  of  her  day.  She  was  a  veritable  Amazon 
in  business,  in  educational  reform,  and  in  Christian 
evangelism.  Of  all  the  Japanese  women  I  have  met 
she  was  the  most  racy  and  emphatic  in  her  speech. 
Her  convictions  were  unshakable,  for  they  were  based 
on  an  experience  which  was  her  very  own.  Born  in 
the  wealthy  patrician  family  of  Mitsui,  in  her  girlhood 
she  received  the  usual  training  in  polite  accomplish¬ 
ments,  but  she  insisted  upon  reading  solid  books  such 
as  only  boys  were  supposed  to  care  for.  Married 
at  seventeen,  she  soon  found  that  her  husband  was 
neglecting  his  business,  and  she,  therefore,  began,  by 
studying  late  at  night  on  arithmetic  and  commercial 
subjects,  to  equip  herself  to  take  his  place.  Five  years 
after  her  marriage  the  crash  came,  and  her  husband 
was  left  nearly  bankrupt.  She  separated  from  him 
and,  single-handed,  reorganized  his  firm,  and  devel- 


136 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


oped  a  coal  mine,  a  bank,  a  life  insurance  company, 
and  agricultural  lands  in  Korea.  For  nearly  forty 
years  she  was  one  of  the  prominent  business  leaders 
of  the  Empire.  When  asked  how  she  happened  to 
become  a  Christian,  she  replied : 

I  wanted  women  to  be  good  and  wanted  to  help  them  to 
improve  their  lot.  I  found  that  I  could  not  accomplish  what 
I  desired  without  religion.  That  conclusion  sent  me  to  study 
religion  from  the  woman's  point  of  view.  I  found  that  there 
is  no  hope  for  women  in  any  of  the  religions  of  the  Orient. 
They  teach  that  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave  women  are 
evil  and  inferior  to  men.  The  Confucian  system  of  ethics, 
for  example,  teaches  that  fools  and  women  cannot  be 
educated.  A  woman  cannot  be  a  “heavenly  creature.”  It 
teaches  that  it  is  better  to  see  a  snake  than  a  woman,  for 
the  latter  arouses  passion.-  Japanese  women  have  been 
so  long  oppressed  by  this  kind  of  teaching  that  they  no 
longer  stop  to  ask  why.  They  are  afraid,  like  slaves. 

Then  I  began  to  read  the  Bible.  I  did  not  like  some  parts 
of  it  any  better  than  I  liked  the  religions  of  the  East.  I 
did  not  see  why  any  woman  should  call  her  husband,  “Lord 
and  Master.”  Saint  Paul  made  me  very  angry.  He  was  an 
old  bachelor — anyone  can  see  that !  He  didn’t  know  much 
about  women.  But  Peter !  He  was  fine.  He  had  a  wife, 
he  understood  women.  One  can  see  that  from  his  epistle. 
When  I  read  the  gospels  I  found  that  Jesus  made  no  dis¬ 
tinction  between  the  sexes.  1  liked  that.  We  are  all,  women 
as  well  as  men,  children  of  God.  I  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  only  hope  for  the  women  of  the  Orient  to  attain 
their  true  position  is  through  Christianity.* 

Madam  Hirooka  was  one  of  the  great  Christian  evangel¬ 
ists  of  Japan.  In  connection  with  the  United  Evangelistic 
Campaign  she  toured  from  north  to  south  and  south  to 
north,  making  her  thrilling,  almost  terrific,  appeals  for  pure 
Christian  living.  One  night  at  Shimonoseki  she  held  a  vast 
theater  audience  of  two  thousand  for  a  solid  hour  with  her 

*  Quoted  from  The  Democratic  Movement  in  Asia ,  p.  141. 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  137 


virile  gospel  message.  She  always  dressed  in  European 
clothes.,  which  made  her  quickly  recognized  everywhere.* 

Many  a  time  I  have  gone  to  Madam  Hirooka’s 
home  to  consult  her  about  some  phase  of  Christian 
work.  She  always  gave  me  good  counsel,  and  was 
the  very  first  Japanese  Christian  of  eminence  to 
support  the  plan  of  establishing  a  Japanese  summer 
conference  plant  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Fuji.  After  my 
main  question  had  been  disposed  of  she  would  always 
engage  in  lively  discussion  of  some  social  or  religious 
problem,  and  with  sweeping  invective  condemn  the 
faint-hearted  Christians  who  to  her  seemed  to  be 
compromising  with  evil.  She  waxed  most  eloquent 
in  denouncing  the  slavery  imposed  upon  women  by 
law  and  tradition,  and  she  saw  no  hope  for  freedom 
for  either  women  or  men  except  through  the  gospel 
of  Christ.  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  alike,  as 
she  had  known  them,  were  powerless  to  break  the 
shackles. 

A  Buddhist  Scholars  Dilemma 

The  most  illuminating  story  of  the  spiritual  pil¬ 
grimage  of  a  modern  educated  Japanese  that  I  have 
ever  heard  is  that  of  my  friend  Ryoun  Kumagai. 
Its  freedom  from  all  denunciation  and  cant  and  its 
clear  witness  to  the  supremacy  of  Christ  are  im¬ 
pressive.  The  following  extracts  are  taken  from  his 
appeal  to  Buddhists  to  become  Christians  :* 1 

I  know  little  about  Christianity  yet,  except  that  I  have 
been  won  by  the  power  of  the  love  of  Christ. 

I  was  born  the  eldest  son  in  a  Buddhist  temple  of  the 

*  What  Shall  I  Think  of  Japan. 


138 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


city  of  Toyama  in  the  strongly  Buddhist  province  of  Etchu. 
Through  the  exertions  of  my  parents  and  other  be  ievers, 
I  succeeded  in  graduating  from  the  Imperial  University, 
specializing  in  religion. 

After  entering  the  University  I  came  strongly  under  the 
influence  of  Chikazumi  Jokan.  I  owe  it  to  him  that  I  am 
able  to  go  forward  boldly  now  in  my  present  convictions. 
He  himself  was  a  deeply  religious,  absolutely  consistent  man, 
who  would  not  compromise,  but  go  straight  ahead.  But 
though  I  listened  to  his  sermons  for  four  years,  somehow  I 
never  could  fully  believe  in  Amida  Buddha;  on  the  contrary, 
Christianity  began  to  sink  in.  I  was  powerfully  attracted  by 
the  work  of  earnest  saints  like  Bunyan  and  Luther  and 
Augustine  and  St.  Paul.  The  words  of  Yamamuro  Gumpei, 
of  the  Salvation  Army,  too,  seemed  more  precious  than  gold. 

Mr.  Kumagai  then  tells  of  becoming  a  teacher  in 
Otaru  and  of  the  coming  to  the  city  of  the  famous 
evangelist,  Pastor  Paul  (Tsurin)  Kanamori.  He 
continues : 

I  saw  Mr.  Kanamori  in  the  distance,  walking  in  quiet 
meditation  along  a  road  which  ran  into  the  hills,  and  I  fol¬ 
lowed  after  him.  It  was  in  the  depths  of  the  peaceful 
mountains,  lovely  with  autumn  colouring,  that  I  first  spoke 
to  this  man  of  God.  He  listened  to  me  as  we  walked,  and 
gave  me  kindly  answers.  We  turned  homewards,  but  still 
there  was  much  to  say.  Next  day  I  laid  all  my  deepest 
doubts  before  him,  and  he  took  up  my  problems  and  solved 
them  one  by  one.  But  I  did  not  then  in  the  least  intend 
to  become  a  Christian.  .  .  . 

When  we  came  to  the  final  parting,  Mr.  Kanamori  prayed 
for  me,  and,  strange  to  say,  that  prayer,  full  as  it  was  of  a 
boundless  sympathy  such  as  I  had  never  heard  since  I  was 
born,  brought  a  great  light  and  power  into  my  life. 

After  that  came  a  period  of  great  distress  and  doubt, 
because  Christ  was  attracting  my  heart  strongly,  but  it  was 
not  easy  to  cast  away  my  old  faith  in  Amida.  Should  I 
believe  in  Christ?  Should  I  believe  in  Amida?  ...  I 
even  dreamed  of  starting  a  new  religion  which  should 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  1.39 

maintain  that  both  were  One  Being.  But  I  did  not  feel  my 
strength  adequate  for  such  an  enterprise. 

Soon  after  my  return  home,  letters  came  from  the  head 
temple,  appointing  me  chief  priest.  But  after  passing 
through  a  time  of  mental  storm,  I  definitely  determined  to 
become  a  Christian. . .  . 

But  why  did  I  cast  away  Buddhism  like  a  worn-out  sandal 
and  put  my  trust  in  Christ  alone?  There  was  a  deep 
reason  for  that.  The  age-long  sufferings  of  Amida — one 
cannot  believe  them  to  have  been  actual  fact.  Of  course 
there  may  be  good  effects  from  believing  in  them  and  deep 
philosophy  in  the  doctrine;  one  may  behave  as  if  one  be¬ 
lieved,  and  preach  about  the  vows  of  Amida;  and  as  I  had 
hitherto  studied  the  subject,  I  could  argue  to  any  extent 
about  it,  but  still  it  was  impossible  to  hold  these  things  as 
historical  truth.  But  the  Cross  of  Christ  is  a  fact.  And 
when  I  read  about  the  words  and  deeds  of  Christ,  it  became 
clear  to  me  that  these  were  not  the  words  and  deeds  of  a 
man;  that  Christ  is  God...  .Then  the  love  of  Christ!  That 
is  beyond  the  power  of  the  heart  or  of  words  to  express. 
The  more  I  knew  of  the  things  of  Christ,  the  more  I  touched 
the  source  of  fathomless  depths  of  truth  and  discovered  for 
the  first  time  the  way  in  which  I  could  truly  live.  .  .  .  The 

world  became  a  radiant  place,  filled  with  love  and  life  and 
powrer.  By  degrees,  as  I  went  on  reading  the  Bible,  I  under¬ 
stood  that  the  teaching  of  Christ  is  not  only  not  inferior  to 
any  other  religion,  but  that  it  is  so  far  above  them  that  they 
cannot  be  compared  with  it.  Christianity  includes  everything 
good  to  be  found  in  Shin  Shu,  Nichiren  Shu,  and  Zen  Shu, 
and  is  higher  than  all.  .  .  . 

When  I  had  made  this  decision,  I  was  especially  troubled 
about  my  mother.  I  could  imagine  how  she  would  not  only 
refuse  her  consent,  but  would  for  a  time  be  full  of  qualms 
about  its  being  unfilial  to  our  ancestors.  There  was  no  way 
but  to  pray  that  my  mother  might  herself  be  brought  to  see 
the  love  of  Christ,  and  come  to  work  with  me  in  the  Path  of 
God.  ...  I  cannot  but  believe  that  in  time  she  will  come 
to  rejoice  in  the  boundless  loving-kindness  of  God.  .  .  . 

I  am  not  making  light  of  Buddhism,  but  I  believe  that  its 
purpose  is  realized  best  by  Christianity.  After  the  sun  has 


140 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


risen,  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  on  burning  electric  lights. 
If  Shaka  and  Shinran  could  see  that  their  aims  of  mercy 
and  salvation  for  man  can  be  attained  completely  by  the 
more  excellent  religion  of  Christianity,  I  believe  they  would 
be  perfectly  satisfied.* 

Incidentally,  this  moving  appeal  illustrates  the  sort 
of  Christian  apologetic  which  is  being  developed  to 
meet  the  needs  of  Buddhists,  much  as  St.  Paul  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  developed  an  apologetic 
primarily  to  meet  the  needs  of  Jews. 

From  Shinto  to  the  One  God 

Almost  as  illuminating  as  Mr.  Kumagai's  con¬ 
version  from  Buddhism  is  the  story  of  the  conver¬ 
sion  of  Miss  Michi  Kawai  and  her  father  from 
Shinto,  for  he  was  a  priest  of  Shinto,  descended 
from  forty  generations  of  priests  at  the  Imperial 
Shrines  of  Ise.  Family  pride,  patriotic  devotion,  and 
professional  interest  all  argued  against  this  man  fol¬ 
lowing  Christ.  Fie  always  rose  at  dawn  to  salute 
the  rising  sun  and  to  pray  reverently  to  the  guardian 
deities  of  Great  Nippon.  But  one  day,  when 
Michi-ko  was  about  eleven  years  old,  her  father  called 
the  family  together  and  solemnly  told  them  he  had 
found  the  true,  living  God.  Till  then  the  children 
had  always  prayed  facing  toward  the  Ise  shrines, 
but  forthwith  he  instructed  them  to  pray  turned  away 
from  the  shrines,  to  impress  the  change  of  faith  on 
their  childish  minds. 

Soon  after  her  father’s  conversion,  Miss  Kawai 
was  sent  to  a  Christian  school  for  girls  in  Sapporo. 

*  Christian  Movement  in  Japan ,  1922,  pp.  80-87. 


RELIGIOUS  RESOURCES  AND  PROBLEMS  141 

It  was  when  she  was  fourteen  that  Dr.  I.  Nitobe 
met  her  there  and  when  he  returned  home  said  to 
his  wife,  “Today  I  have  discovered  the  coming 
woman  of  Japan.”  Commenting  on  this  remark  a 
few  years  ago,  Miss  Macdonald  wrote,  “She  is  not 
the  coming  woman  any  more,  she  has  come!”  But 
it  required  long  years  of  preparation,  including  a 
college  course  at  Bryn  Mawr,  eight  years  of  teaching 
in  Miss  Tsuda’s  fine  girls’  school  in  Tokyo,  and 
two  years  in  Europe  and  America  studying  social 
and  religious  conditions  and  speaking  to  hundreds  of 
gatherings. 

Since  1916  she  has  been  National  General  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations, 
but  her  influence  has  been  potent  among  men  as 
well  as  women  in  all  parts  of  the  Empire  and  in  for¬ 
eign  lands.  Her  clear-cut  evangelistic  appeals  have 
carried  conviction  to  students  in  Europe  and  North 
America  no  less  than  they  have  in  Japan.  Breaking 
over  the  bounds  of  ancient  etiquette  she  has  courage¬ 
ously  urged  Japanese  men  to  deal  chivalrously  with 
womankind.  She  is  an  elder  and  an  ardent  worker 
in  Dr.  Uemura's  church. 

By  making  a  composite  of  the  foregoing  stories 
of  Japanese  converts  to  Christianity  one  can  gain  a 
fairly  accurate  reflection  of  the  religious  situation  in 
[apan.  It  is  such  men  and  women  who  constitute 
the  unanswerable  argument  for  the  adequacy  of 
Jesus  Christ  and  the  sufficient  justification  for 
Christian  missions  to  Japan. 


1 42 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


V 

Epochs  and  Achievements  of  the 
Christian  Movement 

Our  survey  of  certain  aspects  of  the  social,  political, 
and  religious  situation  will  have  made  it  evident  that 
the  problems  of  the  Japanese  people  demand  the 
solvent  power  of  the  Christian  gospel,  but  equally 
evident  that  the  attempt  to  bring  the  people  as  a 
whole  to  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  is  a  task  in  some 
respects  unparalleled  in  history.  For  Japan  not  only 
has,  like  China,  an  ancient  and  advanced  political, 
intellectual,  and  religious  civilization,  but  she  has 
progressed  much  farther  than  China  toward  universal 
education,  an  omnipresent  daily  press,  a  cosmopoli¬ 
tan  literature,  and  a  national  self-confidence  based  on 
repeated  triumphs  in  war.  In  short,  the  messengers  of 
Christ  have  never  approached  a  people  at  once  so  civil¬ 
ized,  so  puissant  and  so  proud,  and  so  fully  acquainted 
with  the  shortcomings  of  the  peoples  who  are  called 
Christian.  As  though  all  these  factors  did  not  make 
the  situation  sufficiently  difficult,  the  first  entry  of 
Christianity  into  Japan  in  the  sixteenth  century,  com¬ 
plicated  as  it  was  by  the  political  designs  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  left  behind  it  a  suspicion  of  the  “evil 
sect”  which  has  survived  even  to  this  day. 

Thus  far  in  our  study  emphasis  has  been  laid  on 
the  problems  confronting  the  Japanese  people  and 
the  indigenous  character  and  resources  available  for 
their  solution.  Beyond  referring  to  the  work  of 
a  few  individual  Christians,  we  have  reserved  for 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  143 

this  and  the  concluding  chapter  a  conspectus  of  the 
achievements  and  potentialities  of  the  Christian 
movement  as  a  whole.  Any  adequate  appraisal  of  the 
capacity  and  promise  of  that  movement  must  consider, 
not  only  its  present-day  leaves  and  fruit,  but  also  its 
roots  and  trunk ;  in  other  words,  the  slowly  germinated 
seed  and  the  buffeted  young  shoots.  As  we  rapidly 
make  this  survey,  it  will  be  instructive  to  ask  ourselves 
frequently:  What  mistakes  were  made?  How  might 
wiser  policies  have  been  adopted? 

1.  The  tragic  first  coming  of  Christianity 

Christian  missions  in  Japan  have  presented  a 
dramatic  mingling  of  triumph  and  tragedy.  The 
entire  story  from  the  entry  of  the  Jesuits  nearly 
four  centuries  ago  would  furnish  thrilling  material 
for  a  scenario  writer.  The  first  scene  would  depict 
Francis  Xavier,  a  pioneer  member  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  commonly  called  Jesuits,  landing  at  the  southern 
tip  of  Japan  in  1549,  accompanied  by  his  first 
convert  and  interpreter,  Anjiro,  exultant  at  the 
thought  of  claiming  this  virgin  kingdom  for  his 
Master.  Xavier  penetrated  as  far  as  Kyoto,  the 
capital,  meeting  with  poor  success  and  dependent  for 
the  most  part  on  the  charity  of  a  suspicious  people. 
In  the  southern  island  of  Kyusiu,  however,  he  won 
some  influential  converts,  including  a  prince  who  was 
so  impressed  by  a  picture  of  Mary  and  the  Child 
Jesus  that  he  fell  on  his  knees  and  commanded  all 
of  his  followers  to  do  likewise.  Xavier  left  within  two 
years  to  evangelize  China,  but  his  successors  reaped 


144 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


where  he  had  sown  and  at  the  end  of  thirty  years 
claimed  150,000  converts  and  within  fifty  years,  half 
a  million.' 

The  depth  of  the  faith  of  many  of  the  new  converts 
was  convincingly  demonstrated  a  little  later  when 
thousands  faced  martyrdom  rather  than  recant.  The 
success  of  the  Jesuits,  however,  was  not  entirely 
due  to  their  zeal  or  their  doctrines.  Political  motives 
had  much  to  do  with  the  support  which  some  of  the 
princes  gave  the  missionaries,  and  in  Japan,  as  among 
the  Teuton  tribes,  it  was  common  for  the  subjects  to 
change  their  religion  at  the  command  of  their  ruler. 
Furthermore,  the  old  religions  were  then  at  a  low 
ebb,  and  the  trappings  and  ceremonies  of  Roman 
Catholicism,  bearing  some  resemblance  to  those  of 
Buddhism,  made  it  easier  for  the  common  folk  to 
make  the  change.  In  1583  one  prince  sent  an  embassy 
to  Rome  to  declare  allegiance  to  the  Holy  See,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  subjects  of  the  prince  were 
ordered  to  embrace  Christianity  or  go  into  exile.  Some 
Buddhist  priests  who  refused  were  put  to  death  and 
their  monasteries  were  burned  to  the  ground. 

But  when  certain  of  the  princes  who  were  nominally 
Christians  tried  to  turn  their  religion  to  political 
account,  it  was  inevitable  that  their  enemies  should 
exert  themselves  to  check  the  foreign  religion.  The 
great  military  triumvirate  who  ruled  Japan  between 
1570  and  1620  detected  in  the  Jesuit  missionaries  the 
advance  guard  of  Portuguese  imperialism.  This 
suspicion  was  based  in  part  upon  the  remark  of  a 
Portuguese  sea-captain  who  was  reported  to  have 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  145 


said,  ‘‘The  King,  my  master,  begins  by  sending  priests 
to  win  over  the  people;  and  when  this  is  done,  he 
despatches  his  troops  to  join  the  native  Christians, 
and  the  conquest  is  easy  and  complete.”  In  1587  a 
national  decree  ordered  the  expulsion  of  the  foreign 
priests,  but  by  closing  their  churches  and  working 
in  secret  in  friendly  provinces  they  were  able  for  a 
time  to  evade  the  military  authorities.  A  little  later 
Franciscan  monks  came  to  Japan  and  competed  with 
the  Jesuits,  notwithstanding  that  the  Pope  had  given 
the  Jesuits  the  exclusive  privilege  of  evangelizing 
Japan.  The  military  authorities  were  stirred  to  new 
persecution  and  in  1597  twenty-six  persons,  including 
six  of  the  Franciscan  fathers,  were  crucified  at 
Nagasaki.  A  few  years  later  came  missionaries  from 
two  other  orders,  the  Dominican  and  the  Augustinian, 
and  sharp  quarrels  broke  out  among  the  different 
orders. 

Finally,  in  1614  the  military  ruler,  Shogun  Ieyasu, 
believing  that  he  had  discovered  a  plot  of  the  Chris¬ 
tians  and  foreigners  for  his  overthrow,  issued  a 
decree  ordering  all  members  of  the  religious  orders, 
whether  Japanese  or  foreign,  to  be  expelled.  Three 
hundred  persons  were  deported  to  Macao  and  a 
number  of  Japanese  Christians  were  sent  to  the 
Philippines  where  their  descendants  still  live.  The 
persecution  waxed  vehement,  and  hundreds  of  con¬ 
verts  testified  to  the  depth  of  their  faith  by  submitting 
without  a  murmur,  not  only  to  being  crucified  and 
burned  at  the  stake,  but  to  being  buried  alive.  As 
might  be  expected,  considerable  numbers  recanted, 


146 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


but  multitudes  remained  unshaken  to  the  end,  com¬ 
parable  in  fortitude  with  the  martyrs  of  ancient 
Rome.  In  Nagasaki  harbor  Pappenberg  Island  is 
still  pointed  out  as  the  traditional  cliff  over  which 
scores  of  the  Christians  were  hurled  to  death. 

In  1638  a  blending  of  religious  and  political  motives 
led  to  the  so-called  Christian  rebellion  of  Shimabara. 
In  quelling  it,  thirty-seven  thousand  persons  were 
massacred.  Thereupon,  the  conquerors  are  said  to 
have  erected  over  the  ruins  of  the  castle  a  stone  with 
this  inscription:  “So  long  as  the  sun  shall  warm  the 
earth,  let  no  Christian  be  so  bold  as  to  come  to  Japan; 
and  let  all  know  that  the  King  of  Spain  himself,  or 
the  Christians'  God,  or  the  Great  God  of  all,  if  he 
violate  this  command,  shall  pay  for  it  with  his  head." 

II.  BEGINNING  THE  MODERN  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT 

As  soon  as  a  few  ports  were  accessible  to  foreign 
residence  in  1859,  the  missionaries  pressed  in.  They 
faced  a  formidable  array  of  obstacles.  None  of  them 
knew  the  Japanese  language, — which  is  as  difficult 
as  the  Chinese,— and  there  were  then  no  textbooks, 
dictionaries,  or  teachers.  Christianity  was  still  a 
prohibited  abomination.  All  Westerners  were  feared, 
for  the  European  powers  had  for  decades  been  despoil¬ 
ing  China,  and  the  Japanese  feared  that  their  turn 
would  soon  come.  Internally,  Japan  was  on  the  verge 
of  civil  war  as  the  two  parties,  which  stood,  the  one 
for  keeping  the  country  closed,  the  other  for  opening 
it  to  international  intercourse,  strove  for  the  mastery. 

Ail  during  the  sixties  a  little  band  of  missionaries 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OE  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  147 

numbering  less  than  a  score  were  concentrating  every 
effort  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  language  and  to 
win  promising  leaders  among  the  progressive  young 
men  who  dared  to  listen  to  them.  Fortunately,  the 
early  Protestant  missionaries  included  several  men 
and  women  of  eminent  character  and  ability,  and  they 
were  remarkably  well  diversified  in  their  talents.  The 
Rev.  John  Liggins  and  the  Rev.  C.  M.  Williams,  after¬ 
wards  Bishop  Williams,  came  from  the  American 
Episcopal  Church  Mission  in  China  and  drew  around 
them  youths  who  have  since  become  leaders  in  the 
Church.  Dr.  James  Hepburn  was  not  only  a  gifted 
physician,  but  a  scholar  whose  Japanese-English 
dictionary  remains  his  monument.  The  Rev.  S.  R. 
Brown  and  the  Rev.  D.  B.  Simmons  of  the  Reformed 
Church  in  America  both  showed  a  talent  for  getting 
hold  of  bright  young  men.  Dr.  Guido  Verbeck  was 
a  man  of  international  training,  and  more  than  any 
other  foreigner  was  trusted  by  high  officials  in  affairs 
of  state.  The  Rev.  J.  Goble,  the  pioneer  Baptist  mis¬ 
sionary,  invented  the  jinrikisha  which  is  now  used 
all  over  southern  Asia.  In  1869  came  Dr.  D.  C. 
Greene,  a  sage,  eminent  as  a  translator  of  the  Bible 
and  as  a  counsellor  of  influential  Japanese.  Later 
Dr.  J.  C.  Berry,  a  physician,  founded  the  Nurses’ 
Training  School  in  Kyoto  and  aided  in  establishing 
a  modern  prison  system.  The  first  missionary  from 
England,  the  Rev.  G.  Ensor,  readied  Nagasaki  in 
1869,  and  quietly  influenced  a  group  of  bright  youths. 
In  the  early  seventies  came  Dr.  Nathan  Brown,  of 
the  American  Baptists,  who  devoted  himself  to  trails- 


148  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

lating  the  New  Testament,  and  Archdeacon  Shaw,  a 
saintly  representative  of  the  Society  for  the  Propaga¬ 
tion  of  the  Gospel ;  also  a  magnetic  group  of  Method¬ 
ists,  Dr.  R.  S.  Maclay  and  Dr.  M.  C.  Harris  (later 
Bishop)  from  the  United  States,  and  D.  Macdonald, 
M.  D.,  from  Canada. 

All  the  missionaries  who  have  been  mentioned 
represented  Western  Christianity,  but  in  1861  there 
came  to  Japan  a  remarkable  Russian,  Father  Nicolai, 
who  afterward  became  Archbishop  of  the  Eastern 
Orthodox  Church  in  Japan.  He  stood  in  the  front 
rank  of  modern  missionary  statesmen.  For  several 
years  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  a  study  of  the 
language,  and  only  after  five  years  did  he  baptize  his 
first  convert,  a  Buddhist  priest,  who  had  first  ap¬ 
proached  him  to  ridicule  Christianity.  In  the  trans¬ 
lation  of  the  Bible,  in  the  education  of  the  clergy, 
and  in  preaching,  he  labored  with  such  energy  and 
wisdom  that  at  his  death  the  Eastern  Orthodox 
Church  in  Japan  numbered  over  thirty  thousand 
communicants.  His  courage  and  devotion  were 
strikingly  shown  during  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
when  he  insisted  upon  remaining  at  his  post  even 
though  the  Japanese  felt  it  necessary  to  shut  him 
up  in  honorable  imprisonment  within  the  compound 
of  the  cathedral,  where  he  had  his  residence.  Nicolai's 
successor,  Bishop  Sergie,  has  emulated  his  generous 
spirit,  as,  for  instance,  by  regular  attendance  upon  the 
national  interdenominational  Christian  conference  of 
1922. 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  149 

Roman  Catholic  missionaries  came  back  to  Japan 
in  1862,  the  very  year  that  the  Pope  proclaimed  the 
canonization  of  the  twenty-six  martyrs  who  had  been 
crucified  at  Nagasaki  in  1597.  Consideration  for  the 
sensibilities  of  the  Japanese  had  led  the  Catholic 
authorities  to  send  French  priests  rather  than  Spanish 
or  Portuguese.  To  their  great  surprise  and  joy, 
after  laboring  quietly  two  or  three  years,  the  priests 
discovered  that  there  were  thousands  of  descendants 
of  the  ancient  Christians,  especially  in  Nagasaki,  who 
after  eight  generations  still  remained  loyal  to  the 
Christian  faith. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  authorities  took 
stringent  steps  to  suppress  these  believers.  The  perse¬ 
cution  reached  its  height  in  1869.  Thousands  were 
sent  into  exile,  and  many  were  put  at  hard  labor 
in  the  mines  or  were  tortured  and  beaten.  During 
the  five  years  ending  in  1873,  at  least  six  thousand 
Christians  were  thus  maltreated.  Two  thousand  of 
them  died  in  prison.  The  United  States  Minister, 
Mr.  Long,  who  had  protested  against  such  acts,  re¬ 
ported  to  his  government :  “After  all  our  arguments 
had  been  used  we  were  finally  told  by  Mr.  Iwakura  that 
this  government  rested  upon  the  Shinto  faith  which 
taught  the  divinity  of  the  Mikado,  that  the  propa¬ 
gation  of  the  Christian  faith  and  religion  tended  to 
dispel  that  belief,  and  that  consequently  it  was  the 
resolve  of  this  government  to  resist  its  propagation 
as  they  would  resist  the  advance  of  an  invading 
army.’'  The  continued  protests  of  the  foreign  min- 


150  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

isters,  aided  by  the  course  of  events,  at  last  led  to  a 
cessation  of  these  persecutions,  and,  in  1872,  many  of 
the  prisoners  were  set  at  liberty. 

The  first  Protestant  convert  was  Yano  Riyu,  a 
teacher  of  the  language  to  one  of  the  missionaries 
in  Yokohama.  The  three  who  were  next  baptized 
had  learned  of  Christ  in  a  romantic  fashion.  One  of 
them,  named  Wakasa,  was  an  official  of  high  rank, 
living  a  hundred  miles  from  Nagasaki,  who  was  sent 
with  a  force  of  men  to  patrol  the  port  of  Nagasaki 
while  English  and  French  men-of-war  were  anchored 
there  in  1855,  a  few  months  after  Perry  had  negotiated 
the  American  treaty.  One  day  he  noticed  a  book 
floating  upon  the  water  near  the  shore  and  ordered 
one  of  his  men  to  get  it.  None  of  the  party  could 
identify  the  book.  The  curiosity  of  the  nobleman 
was  so  excited  that  after  the  foreign  ships  had  de¬ 
parted  and  he  had  returned  home,  he  sent  one  of  his 
retainers  to  Nagasaki  to  find  out  about  the  book, 
which  proved  to  be  a  Dutch  Bible.  Learning  that 
a  Chinese  version  had  been  published  in  Shanghai,  he 
secretly  sent  a  man  thither  to  purchase  a  copy. 
Wakasa,  with  his  younger  brother  and  some  friends, 
commenced  an  earnest  study  of  the  volume.  In  1862 
the  brother  went  to  Nagasaki,  hoping  to  get  aid  in 
understanding  it,  and  he  there  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Rev.  Guido'  Verbeck  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Mis¬ 
sion.  Afterward  Wakasa  sent  another  relative  to 
Nagasaki  to  study  English  and  the  Bible.  This  man 
carried  questions  and  answers  back  and  forth  between 
the  two  places,  and  in  this  way  the  strange  Bible  class 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  151 

was  carried  on  for  three  years.  In  1866  the  two 
brothers,  with  the  other  relative,  went  to  Nagasaki 
and  were  baptized.  On  returning  home  they  reported 
to  their  feudal  lord  what  they  had  done.  He  was 
inclined  to  permit  them  to  do  as  they  pleased,  but  his 
superiors  ordered  that  they  be  punished.  Little  was 
done,  however,  except  to  burn  some  of  the  books. 
Wakasa  died  in  1874.  The  zeal  that  he  had  shown 
for  the  conversion  of  his  children  and  friends  was 
proved  by  fruits  gathered  in  later  years. 

Other  isolated  converts  were  gained  from  time  to 
time,  but  up  to  the  spring  of  1872,  nearly  thirteen 
years  after  the  arrival  of  the  first  Protestant  mis¬ 
sionaries,  only  ten  Japanese  had  received  baptism  at 
their  hands. 

Parallel  with  the  unwearied  labors  of  the  mission¬ 
aries,  unique  service  was  being  rendered  by  certain 
Christian  laymen.  Among  them  was  the  Honorable 
Townsend  Harris  who  negotiated  the  American  treaty 
with  Japan  in  1858.  The  countless  delays  and  pre¬ 
varications  which  he  had  to  endure  threw  into  bright 
relief  the  patience  and  unselfishness  of  his  character. 
He  set  a  high  precedent  for  diplomatic  intercourse 
with  Japan.  Most  of  the  other  laymen  in  Japan  had 
been  called  as  teachers  in  the  schools  or  advisors  to 
government;  departments.  Dr.  David  Murray  in  the 
Department  of  Education  helped  found  the  primary 

school  system  on  the  American  model.  Dr.  'W.  E. 
✓ 

Griffis  taught  in  a  provincial  school  and  later  in  the 
University  of  Tokyo  and  had  among  his  pupils  many 
men  who  became  prominent.  President  W.  S.  Clark 


152  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

of  Massachusetts  was  engaged  to  establish  an  Agri¬ 
cultural  College  at  Sapporo  in  northern  Japan,  and 
during  the  eleven  months  of  his  stay  in  the  country 
his  fearless  Christian  character  deeply  impressed  his 
pupils..  He  was  at  first  restrained  from  speaking 
about  Christianity,  but  the  restriction  was  removed 
when  he  insisted  that  he  could  not  teach  ethics  satis¬ 
factorily  without  using  the  Bible.  Among  those  whom 
he  led  into  the  Christian  life  are  Dr.  Sato,  now  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Imperial  University,  which  has  developed 
from  the  old  Agricultural  College;  Dr.  Nitobe,  the 
author  of  Bushido  and  other  well-known  works  and 
one  of  the  four  Chief  Secretaries  of  the  League  of 
Nations ;  and  Kanzo  Uchimura,  the  independent  Chris¬ 
tian  leader. 

III.  TRAINING  JAPANESE  LEADERS 

The  early  missionaries  wisely  focused  their  efforts 
upon  the  winning  and  training  of  leaders,  and  it  is  a 
striking  fact  that  the  men  who  have  led  the  Church 
and  Christian  education  from  the  beginning  were 
almost  all  won  in  the  early  years  by  men  and  women 
who  with  rare  wisdom  and  self-effacement  invested 
their  energies  in  small  bands  of  disciples.  There  were 
five  such  bands  which  have  become  historical,  at  Ku¬ 
mamoto,  Sapporo,  Yokohama,  Osaka,  and  Hirosaki. 

The  most  romantic  story  is  that  connected  with  the 
Kumamoto  Band.  In  1872  Captain  Janes,  formerly 
an  instructor  in  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point  and  a  man  of  soldierly  bearing  and 
courage,  was  employed  to  found  a  school  in  Kuma- 


MISSIONARIES  TAKE  ADVANTAGE  OF  THE  CROWDS  GATHERED  FOR  A  TEMPLE  FESTIVAL  TO 

PREACH  THE  GOSPEL  OF  CHRIST 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  153 

moto.  He  was  a  zealous  Christian,  and  every  Saturday 
he  read  the  Bible  with  a  band  of  his  students.  They 
came  to  study  English  and  also  to  find  “holes”  in  the 
Christian  teaching.  But  one  after  another  their  scepti¬ 
cism  was  overcome,  so'  that  in  three  years  there  were 
thirty  believers.  In  that  district  the  anti-foreign  spirit 
was  strong,  and  among  the  samurai  were  desperate 
men  who  longed  for  a  chance  to  cut  off  Captain  Janes’ 
head.  They  openly  spat  at  him  on  the  streets.  When 
these  fanatical  patriots  learned  of  the  conversion  of 
so  many  students  to  the  hated  foreign  faith,  they 
resolved  to  kill  the  converts  on  a  certain  night,  but 
the  plot  was  discovered  just  at  dusk.  With  blanched 
face,  one  of  the  youths  went  to  the  Captain’s  house 
crying,  “We’re  all  to  be  killed  tonight!” 

“Very  well,”  cheerfully  replied  the  Captain,  “then 
you’ll  all  be  in  heaven  tonight,  and  I’ll  be  there  with 
you!  Get  your  swords  and  I’ll  take  my  revolvers.” 

The  director  of  the  school  was  sent  for  and  sternly 
asked  why  he  had  permitted  the  plot.  The  culprit 
denied  his  guilt,  but  the  Captain  decisively  said:  “I 
know  it  all,  and  you’re  at  the  bottom  of  it.  If  a  single 
hair  of  these  boys’  heads  is  injured,  off  comes  your 
head  first  of  all.” 

The  young  men  felt  that  it  might  be  a  fight  to  the 
death.  Climbing  Flowery  Hill  just  outside  the  city, 
they  gathered  under  a  gnarled  pine — still  standing — 
and  in  their  own  blood  signed  a  solemn  covenant  to 
stand  fast  and  go  forth  to  enlighten  the  darkness  of 
the  Empire  with  the  gospel  of  Christ.  A  fierce  perse¬ 
cution  broke  out,  but  most  of  the  lads  stood  true. 


F-.lao 


154 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


Among  them,  eight  went  to  Kyoto  to  form  the  first 
class  in  Doshisha  University  which  Dr.  Neesima  and 
the  missionaries  of  the  American  Board  were  trying 
to  establish.  Some  of  the  Band  fell  by  the  wayside 
in  later  years,  but  others  have  continued  to  this  day 
in  the  forefront  of  the  Christian  movement.  One 
of  them,  Dr.  Ebina,  is  president  of  the  Doshisha, 
which  now  enrols  2,500  students;  another  is  Dr. 
Kosaki,  long  prominent  as  pastor,  author,  and  Sunday 
School  leader ;  and  still  another  is  Pastor  Paul 
Kanamori,  who  has  become  famous  for  the  three- 
hour  sermon  which  he  has  preached  to  hundreds  of 
thousands. 

The  Sapporo  Band  has  already  been  referred  to 
as  an  outgrowth  of  the  remarkable  influence  of  Presi¬ 
dent  Clark.  The  Hirosaki  Band  developed  from  the 
work  of  little-known  early  Methodist  missionaries, 
but  so  deep  was  the  impress  they  made  that  a  score 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Methodist  Church  have  come 
from  that  one  district. 

The  Osaka  Band  was  the  outgrowth,  chiefly,  of  the 
quiet,  personal  influence  of  Bishop  Williams,  Arch¬ 
deacon  Warren,  and  Dr.  Tyng,  and  yielded  several 
of  the  ablest  leaders  for  the  Nippon  Sei  Ko  Kwai, — 
Japan  Holy  Catholic  Church  (Anglican). 

The  Yokohama  Band  grew  out  of  the  labors  of  a 
group  of  Dutch  Reformed  and  Presbyterian  mis¬ 
sionaries,  among  whom  were  Dr.  S.  R.  Brown,  Dr, 
Hepburn,  and  Dr.  James  H.  Ballagh.  From  their 
work  came  the  Band  that  in  1872  founded  the 
first  church  in  Japan,  known  as  Kaigan,  or  Seashore 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  155 

Church,  which  is  now  in  the  Presbyterian  family. 
Among  them  were  the  first  Bishop  of  the  Japan 
Methodist  Church,  the  saintly  Yoitsu  Honda;  Dr. 
K.  Ibuka,  educator  and  leader  in  all  cooperative  enter¬ 
prises;  and  the  Rev.  M.  Oshikawa,  former  president 
of  Northeastern  College  at  Sendai.  They  were  joined 
a  year  later  by  Pastor  Uemura,  equally  eminent  as 
author,  pastor,  educator,  and  administrator,  whose 
theological  library  Dr.  John  Kelman  declared  to  be  the 
best  selected  he  had  ever  seen  in  any  pastor’s  home. 
Eminent  as  Dr.  Uemura  is,  he  is  so  reticent  that  no 
sketch  of  his  life  has  hitherto  appeared,  but  he  finally 
yielded  to  my  entreaty  and  disclosed  to  a  common 
friend  some  of  the  salient  points  in  his  career.  Apart 
from  its  intrinsic  interest,  the  sketch  throws  sidelights 
on  the  stuff  of  which  Japanese  Christian  leaders  are 
made.  I  will  give  it  as  he  told  it. 

I  was  born  in  1857.  My  father  was  a  samurai  of  high 
rank  in  the  Tokugawa  clan,  but  with  the  downfall  of  the  clan 
at  the  Restoration,  lie  was  reduced  to  penury.  Fired  with 
ambition  to  restore  the  family  fortunes,  at  fifteen  I  entered 
Mr.  (later  Doctor)  James  Ballagh’s  school  in  Yokohama. 

My  family  were  Shintoists  and  I  devoutly  worshiped  at 
the  shrine  of  a  blacksmith  who  had  risen  to  be  a  great  soldier 
and  patriot,  praying  that  I  might  rise  in  like  manner.  But 
my  fellow-students  ridiculed  my  piety,  and  I  stopped  my 
visits  to  the  shrine.  One  day  I  learned  from  Mr.  Ballagh 
that  Westerners  also  worshiped,  but  only  one  God.  This 
greatly  impressed  and  astonished  me.  I  immediately  grasped 
and  accepted  the  idea.  Only  later,  after  I  began  to  study 
theology,  did  grave  doubts  occur  to  me. 

I  found  my  ambitions  radically  changed.  I  no  longer  cared 
to  become  a  high  official,  and  in  a  short  time  I  felt  a  deep 
desire  to  be  a  Christian  minister.  My  parents  objected  to  my 


156  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

receiving  baptism,  and  I  postponed  it  for  several  months. 
But  five  years  later  they  too  were  baptized.  Even  though 
the  Edict  boards  against  Christianity  were  still  hanging, 
there  was  no  official  persecution. 

In  1878  I  entered  an  English  college  opened  by  Dr.  S.  R. 
Brown.  The  tuition  was  ten  yen  a  month,  equivalent  to  fifty 
yen  now.  I  did  all  sorts  of  work  to  earn  expenses.  My  chief 
reliance  was  a  school  of  my  own  where  I  taught  fifty  classes 
of  one  pupil  each,  from  one  until  ten  o'clock.  I  also  raised 
pigs — then  considered  rather  disgraceful.  I  know  all  about 
pigs.  Their  chief  virtues  are  that  they  need  to  be  fed  only 
twice  a  day  and  they  turn  everything  they  eat  into  gold ! 

I  studied  everything  and  learned  quickly —  except  the 
organ,  which  refused  to  yield  to  my  awkward  fingers.  When 
the  college  was  moved  to  Tokyo  to  become  the  forerunner  of 
the  present  Meiji  Gakuin,  I  went  with  it  and  finished  the 
course. 

My  first  church  was  in  a  poor  part  of  Tokyo.  I  earned 
my  own  living,  so  the  church  was  self-supporting,  a  vital 
principle  with  me !  Then  I  began  to  preach  in  friends’ 
houses  in  the  better  residential  quarter.  In  1887  a  chapel 
was  built.  There  were  only  twenty  members,  so  I  continued 
to  earn  my  living  by  translating  for  magazines  and  teaching 
theology  at  Meiji  Gakuin.  Finally,  in  1903,  some  conserva¬ 
tive  missionaries  objected  to  my  using  W.  N.  Clarke’s 
Christian  Theology ,  so  I  resigned  and  in  1904  started  an 
independent  Theological  School.  Three  years  later  a  con¬ 
verted  stockbroker  gave  the  school  a  site  and  building  and  a 
small  endowment.  It  has  continued  ever  since  to  have  twenty 
<  or  thirty  students. 

I  started  the  Fukuin  Shimpo  (Gospel  News)  as  a  Japanese 
“British  Weekly.”  From  the  first  I  have  been  editor  and 
business  manager.  It  has  never  received  a  subsidy  from 
anywhere,  though  I  have  had  to  put  a  good  deal  of  my  own 
income  into  it  at  times.  Generally  I  look  after  the  business 
end  of  it. 

In  1888  I  went  abroad,  and,  declining  scholarships  at 
Columbia  and  Princeton,  I  went  to  London  and  for  five 
wonderful  months  heard  Spurgeon  and  Joseph  Parker,  and 
James  Martineau,  and  I  read  to  my  heart’s  content.  Dr. 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  157 


Dykes,  later  principal  of  Westminster  College,  was  especially 
kind  to  me.  On  a  later  visit  to  London,  I  and  my  companion, 
an  M.  P.,  got  locked  in  ITyde  Park,  and  had  to  throw  away 
our  dignity  and  climb  the  high  iron  palings. 

Dr.  Uemura  has  long  been  the  foremost  figure  in 
the  Nihon  Kirisuto  Kyokai  (Church  of  Christ  in 
Japan).  He  is  blunt  and  brusque,  but  absolutely 
sincere  and  loyal  to  the  truth  as  he  sees  it.  When  the 
issue  of  the  independence  of  the  Church  from  the 
Missions  was  up,  he  led  the  assault  and  carried  the 
day.  Yet  he  highly  values  missionaries  of  the  right 
sort  and  wishes  more  of  them.  His  living  monument 
is  the  Fujimicho  Church,  of  which  he  has  been  pastor 
ever  since  its  foundation,  thirty-five  years  ago.  It  is 
worth  going  far  to  see,  and  still  farther  to  be  a  part  of 
it,  as  I  was  for  several  years.  It  pulses  with  outgoing 
life,  for  it  is  a  mother  of  churches  and  a  breeder  of 
ministers.  It  embraces  rich  and  poor,  official  and 
ex-convict,  for  a  stream  of  released  prisoners  is 
brought  to  it  through  the  work  of  Miss  Macdonald 
and  Miss  West.  It  spends  little  on  itself  and  much 
on  extension.  Its  pulpit  is  life-building,  for  the 
sermons  are  expository  and  searching. 

Last  year  Pastor  Uemura,  as  permanent  chairman 
of  the  National  Board  of  Missions  of  his  denomina¬ 
tion,  was  sent  to  America  and  Scotland  on  the  occasion 
of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the 
Nihon  Kirisuto  Kyokai,  to  express  thanks  to  the 
churches  abroad  which  had  sent  missionaries  to  plant 
the  Church  in  Japan.  In  what  other  country,  I 
wonder,  can  the  man  be  found  who  has  spanned  the 


158 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


entire  history  of  a  denomination,  having  been  a  lead¬ 
ing  factor  in  its  evangelistic,  literary,  educational, 
and  administrative  activities,  and  at  sixty-six  is  still 
the  most  dynamic,  sagacious  personality  in  its  ranks? 

There  were  no  such  clearly  marked  bands  among 
Japanese  women,  but  the  influence  of  some  of  the 
early  missionary  women  was  just  as  remarkable  as 
that  of  the  men  who  have  been  mentioned.  One 
thinks  at  once  of  Miss  Russell  of  the  Methodist 
School  at  Nagasaki ;  of  that  remarkable  Congrega¬ 
tional  trio  at  Kobe — Miss  Talcott,  Miss  Barrows, 
and  Miss  Dudley;  of  Miss  Kidder  and  Mrs.  Pruyn  at 
Yokohama;  of  Miss  Tristram  at  Osaka;  and  of  many 
others  who  are  still  alive  and  rejoicing  in  the  strong 
workers,  men  as  well  as  women,  whom  they  have 
helped  to  raise  up. 

Slowly,  but  solidly,  through  all  the  trying  early 
years,  the  foundations  of  the  Church  were  being  laid. 
Although  the  first  Protestant  congregation,  Kaigan 
Church  at  Yokohama,  celebrated  its  Jubilee  in  1922,  it 
was  not  org*anized  until  the  missionaries  had  been  there 
thirteen  years.  Even  then  the  edict  against  Chris¬ 
tianity  was  still  prominently  exhibited  and  nominally 
in  force.  It  took  no  little  courage  for  the  eleven  young 
men  who  formed  the  Kaigan  Church  to  commit  them¬ 
selves  irrevocably  to  the  Christian  cause  in  face  of  the 
opposition  of  friends  and  relatives,  of  the  law  of  the 
land  and  of  public  opinion.  This  first  church  was  in¬ 
tended  to  be  undenominational,  for  its  members  saw 
no  reason  why  they  should  perpetuate  the  divisions  of 
the  Church  in  Western  lands.  The  constitution  de- 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  159 

dared:  “Our  Church  does  not  belong  to  any  sect 
whatever;  it  believes  only  in  the  name  of  Christ,  in 
whom  all  are  one;  it  believes  that  all  who  take  the 
Bible  as  their  guide  and  who  diligently  study  it  are 
the  servants  of  Christ  and  our  brethren.  For  this 
reason  all  believers  on  earth  belong  to  the  family  of 
Christ  in  the  bonds  of  brotherly  love/'’  Ultimately 
this  church  became  a  part  of  what  is  now  known  as 
“The  Church  of  Christ  in  Japan”  which  is  Presby¬ 
terian  in  polity.  Passengers  who  alight  from  the 
steamers  in  Yokohama  naturally  pass  by  the  building 
which  has  housed  it  for  the  past  forty  years. 

In  Osaka  a  remarkable  early  church  was  that 
founded  by  Paul  Sawayama,  the  first  Japanese  to  be 
ordained  in  Japan  and  the  first  to  insist  ©n  self- 
support.  It  took  truly  apostolic  faith  and  devotion 
for  him  to  refuse  all  the  attractions  of  lucrative  Gov¬ 
ernment  posts  and  live  on  the  few  dollars  a  month 
contributed  by  the  eleven  members  of  his  church  who 
had  caught  his  unbounded  faith.  In  his  biography, 
A  Modern  Paul  in  Japan ,  the  results  are  thus  recorded  : 
“The  Naniwa  Church  grew  very  rapidly.  At  the 
end  of  five  years  it  had  increased  its  annual  contri¬ 
butions  from  seventy  to  seven  hundred  dollars.  It 
had  started  another  independent  church  in  Osaka, 
and  had  made  a  beginning  in  nine  other  places.  It 
had  also  established  a  Christian  girls’  school.’ ’ 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  founding  of  the  Church  went 
the  establishment  of  Christian  schools.  The  first  one 
to  be  founded  in  the  interior,  Doshisha  College,  was 
the  result  of  the  vision  conceived  by  Joseph  Neesima 


i6o  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

while  he  was  still  studying  in  the  United  States.  Leav¬ 
ing  Japan  secretly  in  1864  at  the  peril  of  his  life,  he 
was  befriended  by  a  Christian  merchant  in  Boston, 
Alpheus  S.  Hardy,  and  was  given  the  best  education 
that  New  England  afforded.  In  1872,  when  the  Japa¬ 
nese  Embassy,  under  Prince  Iwakura,  was  touring  the 
world,  young  Neesima  was  asked  to  join  them,  and 
thus  he  became  intimate  with  the  most  eminent  states¬ 
men  of  the  time,  and  they  were  attracted  to  him  in 
spite  of  their  aversion  to  his  new  religion.  He  was 
repeatedly  offered  high  government  positions,  but  he 
held  fast  to  his  one  purpose  ( Doshisha  means  “one 
purpose" )  to  found  a  Christian  college  which  would 
nurture  leaders  for  the  Christianizing  of  his  people. 

The  story  of  his  struggles  against  fierce  Buddhist 
and  official  opposition,  and  of  his  ultimate  success  in 
securing  a  tract  of  land  in  the  very  heart  of  Kyoto, 
the  ancient  religious  and  political  capital,  is  one  of 
the  most  thrilling  stories  in  all  modern  biography. 

A  missionary  colleague,  Dr.  J.  D.  Davis,  shared 
with  him  the  struggles  and  the  ultimate  triumphs  of 
those  early  years.  Col.  Davis  feared  God  and  nothing 
else.  He  trusted  Neesima  and  they,  together,  strong 
in  a  common  purpose,  labored  until,  in  1875,  Doshisha 
College  was  an  accomplished  fact,  with  eight  pupils 
and  two  teachers  who  met  in  rented  buildings  and 
started  with  prayer,  as  Dr.  Davis  thus  records:  “We 
began  our  school  this  morning  with  a  prayer-meeting 
in  which  all  the  scholars  took  part.  I  shall  never 
forget  Mr.  Neesima’s  tender,  tearful,  earnest  prayer 
as  we  began  school.”  Thus  they  successfully  defied 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  161 


the  prophecy  of  a  Buddhist  priest  who  had  facetiously 
remarked,  ‘‘You  might  as  well  try  to  remove  yonder 
Mount  Hiei  into  Lake  Biwa  as  to  start  a  Jesus  school 
in  the  city  of  Kyoto.” 

The  early  missionaries  and  their  energetic  young 
converts  worked  indefatigably  to  create  Christian 
literature.  The  first  weekly  paper  in  the  country  was 
started  by  Dr.  Orramel  Gulick,  in  1875,  being  called 
“One  in  Seven  News.”  Apologetic  works,  original 
and  translated,  were  issued,  but  the  greatest  achieve¬ 
ment  of  all  was  the  cooperative  translation  of  the 
Bible,  of  which  the  New  Testament  was  completed  in 
1880  and  the  Old  Testament  in  1887. 

IV.  THE  PERIODS  OF  POPULARITY  AND  REACTION 

During  the  early  eighties,  the  Christian  movement 
gained  such  momentum  that  not  a  few  leaders  pre¬ 
dicted  that  Japan  would  become  a  Christian  nation 
within  a  generation.  Some  of  the  young  missionaries 
arriving  in  the  country  were  advised  that  only  a 
smattering  of  Japanese  would  suffice,  since  English 
was  becoming  widely  understood,  and  the  opportu¬ 
nities  for  work  were  so  insistent  that  time  could  not 
be  spared  for  a  thorough  study  of  the  language. 

But  about  1889  a  sharp  reaction  set  in.  The  acces¬ 
sions  to  the  churches  in  a  single  year  fell  from  5,677 
to  1,199,  and  during  the  following  decade  the  defec¬ 
tions  from  the  churches  were  so  numerous  and  the 
antipathy  to  Christianity  so  strong  that  most  of  the 
churches  barely  held  their  own.  The  causes  for  this 
reaction  are  not  far  to  seek.  In  the  eighties  everything 


1 62  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

foreign,  including  Christianity,  was  enthusiastically 
welcomed,  and  Fukuzawa,  an  influential  journalist, 
went  so  far  as  to  argue  that  it  would  be  well  for  the 
whole  nation  to  become  nominally  Christian  so  as  to 
hasten  political  equality  with  the  West,  which  was 
the  dearest  ambition  of  the  nation.  The  Japanese 
resented  being  classed  with  backward  countries,  like 
Turkey,  and  insisted  that  all  foreigners  should  be 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Japanese  courts. 
One  fanatic,  who  thought  Marquis  Okuma,  then 
Foreign  Minister,  was  not  aggressive  enough  in 
pressing  Japan’s  case,  threw  a  bomb  which  cost  the 
Marquis  the  loss  of  one  leg.  Finally,  after  a  decade 
'  of  insistent  negotiation,  extra-territoriality  was  ended 
in  1898.  Meanwhile,  everything  foreign  was  disliked, 
and  Christian  work  suffered  accordingly.  Another 
reason  was  the  shallow  nurture  which  most  converts 
had  received  before  entering  the  Church.  Men  and 
women  were  baptized  by  the  score  without  a  clear 
idea  of  the  meaning  of  Christian  discipleship.  Further¬ 
more,  the  more  extreme  and  untested  theories  of  the 
German  “higher  criticism”  swept  like  a  wave  over  the 
unprepared  Christian  community,  undermining  the 
faith  of  many  who  had  no  depth  of  Biblical  knowledge 
or  of  Christian  experience. 

The  decade  of  the  nineties  also  brought  another 
severe  ordeal  to  the  young  Church  in  the  form  of  the 
rather  hot-headed  demand  of  certain  Japanese  Church 
leaders  for  independence  of  the  missionaries.  This 
struggle  was  most  marked  between  the  vigorous 
Kumiai  or  Congregational  churches  and  the  corre- 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  163 

spending  American  Board  Mission.  The  bitterness 
of  the  struggle  was  aggravated  by  the  so-called 
Doshisha  trouble,  when,  after  the  death  of  Neesima, 
some  of  the  Japanese  alumni  and  faculty,  yielding 
tQ'  the  prevalent  anti-foreign  feeling,  strove  to  seize 
entire  control  of  the  institution  and  to  weaken  its 
Christian  character.  The  same  struggle  broke  out 
later  in  other  denominations,  especially  in  the  Church 
of  Christ  in  japan  (Presbyterian).  The  very  con¬ 
scientiousness  and  strength  of  character  of  the  two 
parties  to  the  struggle  caused  wounds  which  it  took 
years  to  heal. 

In  the  light  of  today,  it  is  clear  that  some  of  the 
Japanese  leaders  were  contentious,  and  many  of  the 
churches  were  unprepared  for  all  the  burdens  of 
self-government,  and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  some 
of  the  missionaries  were  too  slow  in  placing  respon¬ 
sibility  squarely  on  the  shoulders  of  their  spiritual 
children  and  letting  them  work  out  their  own  salvation 
by  “trial  and  error.”  Fortunately,  to-day,  even  those 
who  were  in  the  very  thick  of  the  fight  can  link  arms 
and  work  as  equals  on  the  great  tasks  that  still  remain. 

V.  ON  THE  UPWARD  TRAIL 

Attention  should  be  called  to  one  outstanding 
asset  of  Christianity  in  Japan;  namely,  freedom  of 
belief  and  propaganda.  In  the  very  Constitution  of 
the  Empire  (Article  28)  we  read:  “Japanese  subjects 
shall,  within  limits  not  prejudicial  to  peace  and  order, 
and  not  antagonistic  to  their  duties  as  subjects,  enjoy 
freedom  of  religious  belief.”  The  value  of  this  guar- 


164  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

antee  cannot  be  overestimated.  A  Japanese  diplomat 
spoke  almost  the  exact  truth  when  he  said  in  1901, 
“The  profession  and  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
are  as  untrammeled  in  Japan  as  in  any  part  of  the 
world.”  Such  obstacles  as  there  have  been  arose 
from  prejudice  and  fear  rather  than  from  the  law 
of  the  land. 

With  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century  the 
whole  Christian  movement  seemed  to  turn  a  sharp 
corner  and  to  enter  upon  a  pathway  of  steady  growth. 
In  place  of  apologetic  addresses,  a  campaign  of  direct 
evangelism  was  inaugurated.  The  Japanese  Evan¬ 
gelical  Alliance  took  the  first  step  by  deciding  to  raise 
a  fund  for  the  purpose.  Soon  after,  in  1900,  the 
cooperation  of  the  missionaries  was  enlisted,  and  joint 
committees  were  appointed.  This  Forward  Movement 
was  signally  blessed.  Hundreds  whose  faith  had 
been  undermined  during  the  decade  of  reaction  were 
reestablished  in  the  Church  and  hundreds  of  new 
converts  of  standing  were  won.  At  the  height  of 
the  Movement  Dr.  John  R.  Mott  conducted  a  fruitful 
series  of  meetings  among  students,  Dr.  R.  A.  Torrey 
spoke  to  large  audiences  in  a  few  centers,  and  Dr. 
M.  C.  Harris,  later  made  Bishop,  returned  to  Japan 
and  gave  characteristically  moving  addresses.  The 
revived  enthusiasm  thus  engendered  for  evangelism 
and  for  cooperative  effort  has  been  maintained  ever 
since  and  has  helped  remove  the  stigma  of  cold  intel- 
lectualism  which  had  begun  to  be  fixed  upon  the 
Christian  movement  in  Japan.  In  1904-05  the  min¬ 
istry  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  the  churches  to  the 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  165 

soldiers  during  the  war  with  Russia  enabled  the 
Christian  message  to  be  carried  to  thousands  of  the 
men  and  to  their  families,  who  belonged  for  the  most 
part  to  the  conservative  peasant  class.  In  1907  came 
the  first  world  gathering  of  any  sort  ever  held  in 
the  Orient,  the  Convention  of  the  World’s  Student 
Christian  Federation  at  Tokyo.  It  created  a  new 
respect  for  Christianity  as  a  world  force,  and  the 
accompanying  evangelistic  meetings  held  throughout 
the  Empire  focussed  the  attention  of  students  upon 
Christ  and  resulted  in  many  accessions  to  the  churches. 

The  most  notable  demonstration  of  the  courage 
and  zeal  of  the  combined  Christian  forces  was  the 
nation-wide  United  Evangelistic  Campaign  which 
grew  out  of  the  national  conference  held  in  1913  by 
Dr.  Mott  as  chairman  of  the  Edinburgh  Continuation 
Committee.  The  campaign  continued  from  1914  to 
1917  and  was  followed  by  a  year  of  “conservation.” 
The  campaign  was  engineered  largely  by  the  Japanese, 
but  the  cooperation  of  missionaries  was  everywhere 
sought  and  appreciated  with  a  heartiness  which  be¬ 
tokened  the  final  dying  out  of  the  earlier  assertive  spirit 
of  independence.  The  Campaign  Generals  were  four 
of  the  ablest  pastors  in  the  country,  Doctors  Uemura 
and  Kosaki  of  Tokyo  and  Doctors  Miyagawa  and 
Naide  of  Osaka.  Around  them  was  a  cohort  of  very 
able  speakers.  Lay  and  clerical,  “liberal”  and  “con¬ 
servative,”  vied  with  one  another  in  bearing  witness  to 
the  things  they  assuredly  knew  about  Christ,  the  life- 
giving  Saviour.  There  were  410,000  auditors,  and  of 
these,  14404  were  enroled  as  seekers  or  new  believers. 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


1 66 

Since  1918  the  various  denominations  have  con¬ 
ducted  mutually  supplementary  Forward  Movements 
which  have  brought  gratifying  results  in  largely 
increased  contributions,  as  well  as  in  evangelism. 
Among  individual  “evangelists,”  the  most  prominent 
have  been  Rev.  Paul  Kanamori,  Colonel  Yamamuro, 
and  the  Rev.  Seimatsu  Kimura,  at  whose  meetings 
thousands  have  taken  the  first  step  in  the  Christian  life. 

The  net  growth  in  the  membership  of  the  Protestant 
churches  by  decades  is  interesting.  From  1899  to  1909 
the  growth  was  23,567;  from  1909  to  1919,  it  was 
34,076.  An  analysis  of  the  membership  drawn  from 
different  classes,  in  one  fairly  representative  local 
church,  belonging  to  the  United  Brethren,  shows  that 
thirty  per  cent  were  in  commercial  pursuits,  twenty- 
eight  per  cent  students,  eight  per  cent  government 
officials  and  soldiers,  six  per  cent  nurses  and  doctors, 
three  per  cent  artists,  and  twenty-eight  per  cent 
unclassified.  These  percentages  would  not  hold  for 
all  the  churches,  some  of  which  are  much  stronger 
in  the  number  of  business  and  professional  men.  In 
general,  the  backbone  of  the  whole  Church  is  composed 
of  the  educated  classes  in  cities  and  towns.  Farmers 
are  comparatively  few  and  manual  laborers  barely 
represented.* 

The  Christians  of  Japan  are  by  no  means  all  in 
the  churches.  One  of  the  largest  groups  of  unbap¬ 
tized  believers  has  arisen  from  the  work  of  Mr.  Kanzo 
Uchimura.  He  is  a  Biblical  teacher  and  writer  of 
extraordinary  power,  but  a  pronounced  independent, 

*  See  Appendix  I,  Chapter  V,  for  Christian  statistics. 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  167 

opposed  to  all  religious  organizations  and  rites.  His 
magazine,  The  Bible  Study ,  founded  a  decade  ago,  is 
unique  in  its  magnetic  quality  as  well  as  in  its  circu¬ 
lation.  Mr.  Uchimura’s  followers  include  farmers 
and  students,  officials  and  teachers.  Many  of  them 
are  earnest  propagators  of  their  faith.  Movements 
like  this  are  symptomatic;  they  represent  a  consid¬ 
erable,  perhaps  growing  number  of  Christians  and 
secret  believers  wlx>  do  not  find  satisfaction  in  the 
Church.  „ 

The  finances  of  Christian  organizations  are  often 
an  index  of  their  spiritual  condition.  It  is,  therefore, 
gratifying  to  note  that  the  amount  raised  by  Japanese 
Christians  for  annual  budgets  has  increased  far  more 
rapidly  than  church  membership.  Even  after  allow¬ 
ing  for  the  lower  purchasing  power  of  money,  the 
increase  is  striking.  In  1910  they  raised  $150,000; 
in  1915,  $290,000;  and  in  1920,  $750,000.  The 
amounts  raised  by  various  bodies  in  1920  were  as 
follows:  Kumiai  Church,  $164,000;  Methodist  Church, 
$73,000  (in  1921  the  Forward  Movement  swelled  the 
total  to  $155,000) ;  Nihon  Kirisuto  Kyokai,  $124,000; 
Sei  Ko  Kwai  (Anglican),  $91,000;  Salvation  Army, 
$73,000;  Baptist,  $14,000;  Young  Mens  Christian 
Associations,  $148,000.  The  value  of  church  prop¬ 
erty,  including  Christian  Associations  but  not  schools, 
increased  from  $692,000  in  1910  to  $1,981,000  in 
1915,  and  to  $3,518,000  in  1920. 

Without  belittling  the  importance  of  the  missions, 
it  is  increasingly  evident  that  the  heart  of  the  Christian 
movement  is  the  self-supporting  Japanese  Church. 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


1 68 

The  conflict  between  Mission  and  Church,  so  acute 
between  1890  and  1905,  has  subsided  during  the  last 
ten  years.  The  reason  is  that  in  the  larger  denomina¬ 
tions  the  battle  was  won,  and  now  that  the  churches 
have  proved  themselves,  there  is  only  a  dwindling 
minority  of  missionaries  today  who  resist  the  transfer 
of  authority  and  responsibility  to  the  Japanese.  A 
growing  number  would  go  so  far  as  to  abjure  the 
revered  tenet  that  “he  who  pays  the  fiddler  calls  the 
tune,'’  at  least  in  so  far  as  it  would  preclude  the  giving 
of  grants  to  self-governing  churches. 

The  Sunday  School  movement  has  grown  nearly 
threefold  since  1905,  when  the  enrolment  was  64,910. 
In  1910  it  had  risen  to  97,760:  in  1915  to  148,333, 
and  in  1921  to  170,169.  Despite  the  impetus  given 
by  the  prospect  of  having  the  World’s  Sunday  School 
Convention  meet  in  Tokyo  in  1920,  the  ratio  of 
growth  fell  during  the  last  five  years.  It  is  likely 
to  take  a  new  leap  forward  during  the  next  period. 
The  World’s  Convention  was  an  historic  event  not 
only  for  the  Sunday  School  movement  itself,  but 
for  the  whole  Christian  cause  in  Japan.  It  received 
extensive  notice  in  hundreds  of  secular  papers.  The 
fact  that  the  Emperor  and  Empress  contributed 
$25,000  to  its  expenses  stopped  the  mouths  of  the 
conservatives  who  had  been  inciting  public  school 
teachers  to  discriminate  against  Sunday  School  pupils. 
The  convention  also  gave  a  greatly  needed  impetus 
to  more  thorough-going  programs  of  religious  educa¬ 
tion  and  to  the  wider  use  of  music  and  pageantry. 

The  Young  Men’s  and  Young  Women’s  Christian 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  169 

Associations  have  made  large  gains.  The  combined 
membership  is  30,434,  which  does  not  include  the  more 
than \i  0,000  students  in  their  educational  classes.  The 
service  rendered  by  the  Associations  to  the  soldiers 
in  Siberia  and  France  enlisted  the  cooperation  of 
many  missionaries  and  Japanese  workers.  Non-Chris¬ 
tians  contributed  the  bulk  of  the  $600,000  expended 
in  this  work.  Tens  of  thousands  of  elementary  school 
children  drew  or  wrote  post-card  greetings  to  be  sent 
through  the  Red  Triangle  secretaries  to  the  soldiers. 
Relief  funds  for  the  students  of  Central  Europe  have 
been  given  by  thousands  of  Japanese  students,  in 
response  to  the  appeals  of  the  Associations.  Systematic 
physical  education,  which  was  introduced  only  in  1914, 
with  the  opening  of  the  gymnasium  in  Tokyo,  lias 
taken  firm  root  and  has  drawn  within  the  circle  of 
Christian  influence  many  boys  and  men  otherwise 
inaccessible.  The  recently  started  special  work  for 
boys  and  for  employed  girls  is  full  of  promise.  The 
beautiful  summer  conference  grounds  acquired  in 
1912  near  Mt.  Fuji  have  provided  a  long  desired 
training  and  recreation  center.  The  most  significant 
achievement  of  the  Christian  Associations  has  been 
the  finding  of  national  secretaries  of  such  caliber  as 
Miss  Mi  chi  Kawai  and  Mr.  Soichi  Saito. 

VI.  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  AND  THE  GOVERNMENT 

SYSTEM 

In  the  nineties  the  Christian  schools  in  common 
with  the  churches  suffered  severely,  and  in  1899  the 
reactionaries  had  secured  the  promulgation  of  an  ordi- 


i/O  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

nance  which  seemed  like  a  body  blow.  It  provided 
that  no  school  which  desired  for  its  pupils  the  same 
privileges  as  government  school  students  with  regard 
to  the  postponement  of  conscription  and  admittance 
to  government  colleges,  should  give  religious  instruc¬ 
tion,  or  hold  religious  exercises.  But  gradually  the 
government  was  persuaded  to  modify  this  ordinance 
so  far  that  Christian  schools  now  stand  practically 
on  a  par  with  government  institutions.  During  the 
decade  of  opposition  and  eclipse,  the  missionary  sup¬ 
porters  in  America  and  England  had  become  somewhat 
discouraged  and  had  failed  to  provide  the  funds  needed 
for  expansion.  Meanwhile,  the  government  institu¬ 
tions  were  forging  rapidly  ahead.  Finally,  about  1908, 
the  missionary  societies  were  fully  aroused  to  the 
short-sightedness  of  neglecting  the  Christian  schools 
whence  they  must  derive  their  leaders,  and  since  then 
there  has  been  a  notable  increase  in  funds  available 
both  for  buildings  and  for  current  budgets. 

Fortunately,  Japanese  alumni  who  have  attained 
affluence  are  beginning  to  give  generously  to  their 
alma  maters.  Doshisha  has  an  endowment  fund  of 
$250,000  contributed  mostly  by  Japanese.  Aoyama 
Gakuin,  the  Methodist  College,  has  received  $150,000 
from  an  alumnus  made  rich  by  war-time  shipping  for 
the  erection  of  a  handsome  building.  Kwansei  Gakuin 
(Methodist  South  and  Canadian),  at  Kobe,  is  con¬ 
stantly  adding  to  its  equipment,  and  St.  Paul’s  College 
in  Tokyo  (Episcopal)  has  spent  about  $250,000  on 
an  impressive  group  of  buildings.  The  eminent  serv¬ 
ices  rendered  to  education  by  Dr.  Schneder  and  North- 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  171 

western  College  at  Sendei  have  moved  a  number  of 
non-Christian  Japanese  to  contribute  generously  to 
rebuild  the  academy  building  destroyed  by  fire. 

At  the  same  time,  Christian  schools  for  girls  have 
prospered.  In  the  earlier  period  missionaries  made 
one  of  their  greatest  contributions  to  Japan  by  pioneer¬ 
ing  in  the  education  of  women.  Until  1900  they 
had  the  field  almost  to  themselves.  Since  then  gov¬ 
ernment  girls’  schools  have  sprung  up  by  the  hundreds, 
but  in  recent  years  the  Christian  women’s  colleges, 
like  those  for  men,  have  been  making  up  for  lost 
time  by  strengthening  their  equipment  and  faculties. 
Among  them  six  may  be  mentioned :  Kobe  College 
(Congregational)  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being 
the  first  woman's  college  to  win  a  government  license 
as  a  university;  St.  Agnes  School  (Episcopal), 
Kyoto,  and  Bishop  Poole’s  School  (Anglican),  Osaka, 
have  trained  a  host  of  Christian  women;  Miss  Tsuda’s 
College  in  Tokyo  (Independent),  has  developed  a 
number  of  outstanding  leaders;  the  Presbyterian  Girls’ 
School  in  Tokyo  has  been  notable  for  the  quality  of 
its  influence  under  the  leadership  of  the  venerable 
Madame  Yajima.  The  Tokyo  Women's  Union 
College,  in  which  six  American  Mission  Boards  are  - 
cooperating,  is  a  notably  successful  development.  It 
has  reached  the  limit  of  its  present  capacity — two 
hundred — but  the  special  funds  recently  raised  in  the 
United  States  with  the  help  of  the  Laura  Spelman 
Rockefeller  Memorial  will  make  early  expansion 
possible. 

There  are  nearly  forty  thousand  enroled  in  Chris- 


172  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

tian  schools  of  all  grades,  beside  ten  thousand 
children  in  the  kindergartens.  The  majority  of 
them  are  in  middle  or  high  schools,  at  an  age  when 
the  most  vital  choices  are  generally  made.  Of  late, 
several  of  the  Christian  schools  have  opened  com¬ 
mercial  departments  and  the  applicants  for  admission 
have  been  so  numerous  that  it  has  required  strenuous 
efforts  to;  maintain  the  Christian  influence  of  the 
schools  unimpaired. 

It  is  significant  that  as  much  money  ($250,000)  is 
derived  from  Japanese  as  from  the  Mission  Boards 
for  the  annual  maintenance  of  the  schools.  Their 
total  property  value  is  about  six  millions,  exclusive 
of  the  Christian  Association  buildings. 

Notwithstanding  their  shortcomings,  it  would  be 
hard  to  exaggerate  the  contribution  which  the  Chris¬ 
tian  schools  have  made  to  the  Christian  movement. 
Even  though  none  of  them  yet  equals  in  rank  the 
highly  equipped  government  colleges  and  universities, 
they  have  supplied  the  inspiration  and  the  initial  train¬ 
ing  to  a  majority  of  the  men  and  women  dedicated 
to  professional  Christian  service.  But  it  is  greatly 
to  be  regretted  that  the  effort  of  a  few  years  ago  to 
establish  a  Central  Union  Christian  University  of  the 
highest  grade  was  not  successful.  This  makes  all 
the  more  urgent  the  improvement  of  existing  institu¬ 
tions,  and  also  the  extension  of  Christian  effort  among 
the  students  of  government  and  other  non-Christian 
colleges.  Their  most  insidious  peril  is  the  temptation 
to  put  size  above  quality,  and  thus  to  dilute  their  Chris¬ 
tian  influence  so  markedly  as  to  fail  to  supply  the 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  173 

consecrated  leaders  so  greatly  needed  in  Japan  today. 

The  state  system  of  education  in  Japan  has  won 
high  praise  from  foreign  critics.  But  it  is  undoubt¬ 
edly  too  much  of  a  system;  it  cramps  originality 
and  spontaneity  in  both  pupils  and  teachers  and  tends 
to  over-emphasize  nationalism,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
getting  a  living,  on  the  other,  to  the  neglect  of  the 
old  ideal  of  culture  and  character.  The  govern¬ 
ment  schools  have  multiplied  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
Twenty-five  years  ago  there  wras  only  one  Imperial 
university.  Today  there  are  five,  enroling  10,250 
men,  all  of  whom  are  over  twenty-one  and  are  doing 
professional  or  graduate  work.  It  always  solemnizes 
me  to  pass  by  Tokyo  Imperial  University  with  its 
imposing  buildings  and  its  still  more  imposing  array 
of  5,500  students,  who  above  any  other  group  in  Japan 
hold  the  keys  of  the  future. 

One  cannot  help  thinking  of  what  a  constant  irre¬ 
ligious  influence  is  brought  to  bear  upon  them  in 
most  of  the  lecture  rooms.  The  need  is  great  for 
strengthening  the  positive  Christian  influences  which 
play  upon  them  outside.  It  is,  however,  encouraging 
to  know  that  there  are  not  less  than  twenty  Christian 
men  on  the  University  faculty,  and  that  the  churches 
and  Christian  student  hostels  in  the  vicinity  are  af¬ 
fecting  several  hundreds  of  the  students  in  the  Univer¬ 
sity  and  in  the  neighboring  government  college.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  other  four  Imperial  Universities. 

Only  second  to  the  Imperial  Universities  in  influence 
are  the  great  private  institutions,  Waseda  University, 
founded  by  the  late  Marquis  Okuma,  and  Keio  Uni- 


174 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


versity  founded  by  Fukuzawa,  who  might  be  called 
the  Benjamin  Franklin  of  Japan. 

Indispensable  as  the  Christian  schools  are,  the 
Christian  movement  can  even  less  afford  to  overlook 
the  government  schools  than  the  Christians  in  America 
could  afford  to  ignore  the  public  high  schools  and 
state  and  municipal  universities.  The  total  enrol¬ 
ment  of  the  Christian  schools  is  only  fifty  thousand, 
over  against  a  total  of  eleven  millions  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  schools,  which  is  one  half  of  one  per  cent. 
Even  in  the  institutions  of  high  school  grade  and 
above,  the  Christian  school  enrolment  is  only  twenty- 
six  thousand  or  eight  per  cent  of  the  number  in 
government  institutions.  Two  or  three  of  the  Imperial 
Universities  have  capital  investments  and  annual 
budgets  as  large  as  all  the  Christian  schools  in  the 
Empire.  In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  consider  the 
bearing  of  these  facts  on  the  policy  of  Christian 
education.  Here  it  is  important  to  see  that  wise 
strategy  justifies  all  the  effort  that  has  been  made 
to  exert  a  Christian  influence  on  students  in  non- 
Christian  schools. 

Who  can  estimate  the  good  done  by  the  long  line 
of  Christian  teachers  of  English  and  other  subjects 
in  government  schools,  many  of  them  self-supporting 
missionaries  in  spirit?  The  first  systematic  attempt 
to  supply  such  teachers  was  in  1887  when  Dr.  Eby 
of  the  Canadian  Methodists  induced  eleven  men  and 
one  woman  to  go  to  Japan.  Ultimately  a  number 
of  them  became  regular  missionaries.  Dr.  Eby 
himself  laid  siege  to  the  students  of  Tokyo  Imperial 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  175 

University,  especially  by  means  of  apologetic  lectures. 
The  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  through  the  English  Teacher  Move¬ 
ment,  since  1890  has  placed  over  two  hundred  and 
fifty  teachers,  young  college  graduates,  most  of  whom 
have  persuasively  presented  Christ  to  lads  otherwise 
inaccessible. 

Among  a  people  so  literate  as  the  Japanese,  litera¬ 
ture  wields  a  potent  influence,  and  it  has  not  been 
neglected  by  Christian  workers.  One  of  the  most 
effective  ways  of  capturing  the  attention  of  students 
and  teachers  in  the  public  schools  has  been  the 
monthly  magazine  called  Morning  Star  ( Myojo ), 
which  is  edited  by  the  Christian  Literature  Society. 
No  copies  are  distributed  except  with  the  permission 
of  the  principals.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  it  is  wel¬ 
comed  or  tolerated  in  nearly  every  high  school  in  the 
Empire.  The  monthly  edition  of  seventy-five  thou¬ 
sand  goes  to  two  thousand  schools. 

The  most  effective  literary  ally  of  the  Christian 
cause  has  been  the  increasing  volume  of  books  and 
magazines  written,  published,  and  distributed  by 
Japanese,  without  a  penny  of  foreign  aid.  From 
an  early  period  zealous  young  converts  found  means 
by  hook  or  crook  to  express  their  new-found  con¬ 
victions  on  the  printed  page.  Laughable  reminiscences 
are  told  of  how  a  group  of  youths  (now  venerable 
elder  statesmen  in  the  Church)  used  to  slave  away 
on  copy  and  subscriptions  for  their  magazine  ( Rikugo 
Zasslii),  debating  heatedly  over  manuscripts,  and  after 
the  last  proof  had  been  sent  to  the  long-suffering 
printer,  celebrating  by  a  frugal,  but  hilarious  mid- 


176  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

\ 

night  repast.  The  profitable  business  built  up  by 
several  of  the  Christian  firms  who  publish  Japanese 
works  is  conclusive  evidence  of  the  wide  demand  for 
the  products  of  Japanese  Christian  experience  and 
scholarship. 

Another  effective  means  of  leavening  the  students 
in  non-Christian  schools  is  the  hostel,  which  is  simply 
a  home  and  social  center  where  a  few  Christian 
students  live  and  to  which  other  students  are  invited 
for  Bible  classes  and  socials.  The  plan  was  started 
thirty  years  ago  by  the  College  Y.  M.  C.  A.  at  Kyoto, 
and  recently  when  a  visitor  was  examining  a  photo¬ 
graph  of  the  charter  members  he  was  surprised  to 
discover  among  them  the  face  of  the  Civil  Governor 
of  Korea,  the  Hon.  C.  Ariyoshi.  He  exclaimed: 
“Now  I  understand  the  source  of  the  splendid 
character  of  this  great  administrator  and  of  his 
life-long  interest  in  the  Young  Men’s  Christian 
Association.”  Many  other  men  prominent  in  Church 
and  State  would  join  him  in  gratefully  acknowledging 
their  debt  to  the  little  hostel  where  they  lived  and 
worked  for  their  fellows  during  college  days.  Several 
missionaries  have  found  in  such  hostels  their  most 
effective  approach  to  students.  At  Waseda  University, 
Dr.  Benninghoff  of  the  Baptist  Mission  has  made  two 
hostels  the  center  of  a  varied  and  fruitful  activity. 
Near  Tokyo  Imperial  University  a  hostel  has  been 
built  by  a  Japanese  Episcopalian  with  funds  raised 
from  American  friends,  and  there  he  and  some  of 
the  Episcopal  missionaries  find  access  to  a  picked 
group  of  men.  When  the  hostel  is  expanded  into  a 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT  177 


club  house  and  auditorium,,  as  it  has  been  by  the 
Christian  Associations  at  Tokyo  Imperial  University 
and  by  the  Baptists  at  Waseda  University,  it  becomes 
a  factor  in  the  life  of  the  whole  student  body. 

Who  can  survey  the  solid  achievements  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  movement  among  the  Japanese  people — in  spite 
of  all  set-backs  and  defects — without  recognizing  the 
mighty  hand  of  God !  As  we  look  back  over  the  pe¬ 
riods  of  popularity  and  reaction,  we  marvel  at  the 
undiscourageable  patience  and  the  solid  achievements 
of  the  missionaries  in  the  face  of  stupendous  difficul¬ 
ties,  but  still  we  cannot  help  wishing  that  they  might 
somehow7  have  been  lifted  clear  above  the  dust  of  the 
day  and  been  able  to  see,  as  we  can  so  easily,  that  they 
should  have  striven  even  harder  to  establish  a  few  very 
strong  and  amply  supported  schools  and  colleges,  that 
they  should  have  softened  the  shock  of  “higher  criti¬ 
cism'’  by  wise  use  of  the  historical  method  themselves, 
that  they  should  have  shared  and  turned  over  respon¬ 
sibility  more  willingly  to  the  Japanese  and  stood  by 
to  steady  them  in  their  plucky  though  over-confident 
efforts  to  walk  alone. 

But  now,  as  we  look  to  the  future,  we  ask,  what 
of  the  towering  unsolved  problems,  the  neglected 
classes,  the  inadequate  Japanese  and  missionary  forces, 
the  challenge  of  the  days  just  ahead? 


178 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

VI 


The  Challenge  of  Today  and  Tomorrow 

As  a  laboratory  in  missionary  science,  Japan  could 
hardly  be  surpassed.  Within  the  short  span  of  sixty 
years  the  missionary  methods  in  Japan  have  passed 
through  a  gamut  of  changes  comparable  to  the 
changes  in  the  political  world.  The  very  fact  that  the 
Japanese  churches  have  had  to  struggle,  sometimes 
against  governmental  and  secular  opposition,  some¬ 
times  against  foes  of  their  own  household,  has 
strengthened  them  for  the  equally  hard  times  ahead. 
If  the  six  decades  already  past  are  considered  the 
infancv  and  adolescence  of  the  Christian  movement, 
then  the  next  few  decades  may  be  called  its  youth. 
Sinewy  from  its  struggles,  hopeful  from  its  triumphs 
hitherto,  it  must  expect  in  coming  days  to  be  tested 
at  every  joint  more  severely  than  ever  before.  Within, 
are  the  ever  growing  problems  arising  from  rapid 
industrialization,  from  the  awakening  of  the  masses 
of  the  people,  from  the  breakdown  of  old  moral 
supports,  and  from  the  galvanizing  into  new  life  of 
half-reformed  Buddhism;  without,  are  the  pressure  of 
baleful  tides  of  thought  and  the  conflict  of  racial 
and  national  ambitions.  If  ever  the  Christian  forces, 
missionary  and  Japanese  alike,  needed  to  summon 
their  united  energies  and  sharpen  their  weapons,  it  is 
today. 

It  is  important  to  realize  in  advance  that  the 
Christianizing  of  a  people  which  possesses  so  highly 
developed  religious  and  social  systems  as  the  Japanese 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  179 


will  be  a  long,  complex  undertaking.  Hitherto,  the 
Christian  movement  has  made  its  gains  almost  entirely 
among  students  and  other  groups  most  responsive  to 
new  ideas.  To  make  headway  among  the  conservative 
groups  will  call  for  siege-work.  Although  suspicion 
and  bitter  opposition  toward  Christianity  have  largely 
disappeared,  other  difficulties  have  arisen.  Thirty  5 
years  ago  Christian  workers  were  acknowledged  to 
be  the  bearers  of  superior  ethical  ideals,  as  represented 
by  the  hospitals  and  schools  and  reform  movements 
which  they  introduced.  Even  outside  the  Christian 
circle,  Japanese  writers  and  publicists  gradually 
accepted  Christian  standards  by  which  to  judge  their 
institutions  and  ideas.  The  government  adopted  the 
programs  of  philanthropy  and  women's  education, 
which  had  at  first  been  the  monopoly  of  the  mis¬ 
sionaries.  The  newspapers,  for  example,  nowadays 
criticize  public  men  for  personal  immorality  which 
would  have  been  ignored  a  few  decades  ago.  Thus, 
without  recognizing  its  indebtedness  to  the  missionary 
movement  and  the  numerically  insignificant  Japanese 
churches,  educated  public  opinion  has  become  to  a 
large  degree  ethically  Christian.  So  far  as  it  goes, 
this  constitutes  a  triumph  for  Christianity.  But  it 
has  deprived  the  Christian  message  of  one  of  its 
chief  grounds  of  appeal. 

Another  difficulty  is  the  aggressive  competition  of 
Shinto  and  Buddhism  with  Christianity.  In  so  far 
as  the  old  religions  are  being  purified,  every  Christian 
will  rejoice,  but  lie  will  be  pardoned  for  fearing  that 
the  leopard  can  never  entirely  change  his  spots. 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


180 

Shinto  can  hardly  get  rid  of  its  nationalistic  bias. 
Buddhism  can  hardly  escape  entirely  from  its  nega¬ 
tive  pessimism.  Yet  the  Shin  Sect  of  Buddhism  has 
gone  a  good  way  toward  making  its  escape.  Many 
of  the  old  sects  are  borrowing  without  apology  the 
methods  and  ideas  of  Christianity.  That  the  results 
are  generally  pale  imitations  is  to  be  expected. 
Ultimately,  the  impossibility  of  making  a  life-giving 
religion  out  of  an  eclectic  combination  of  new  and 
old  wine  will  be  apparent.  But  meanwhile,  modernized 
Buddhism  and  glorified  Shinto  will  seriously  impede 
the  progress  of  Christian  truth. 

A  still  further  stumbling-block  is  “Christian  civili¬ 
zation/’  The  era  when  the  brilliance  of  occidental 
civilization  cast  a  glamor  upon  the  religion  of  the  West 
has  forever  passed.  The  World  War  cast  a  lurid  light 
on  the  “Christian  nations.”  Their  religion  was  seen 
to  be  impotent  to  subdue  political  and  financial  ambi¬ 
tions.  The  messengers  of  Christ  in  Asia  now  find 
“Christian  civilization”  rather  to  be  apologized  for 
than  an  effective  apologetic  for  their  message. 

I.  POLICIES  AND  EMPHASES  REQUIRED 

Our  cursory  survey  of  these  giants  in  the  path 
of  the  Christian  movement  in  Japan  will  have  shown 
that  the  task  ahead  is  no  holiday  parade.  To  make 
the  Japanese  people  predominantly  Christian  will  be 
a  stupendous  achievement.  It  is,  therefore,  fitting 
that  we  attempt  to  forecast  some  of  the  most 
important  steps  to  that  end. 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  181 


I.  Cooperation  and  federation 

The  first  requisite  is  the  better  coordination  and 
use  of  all  the  Christian  forces.  At  various  times 
prominent  Japanese  laymen  have  agitated  for  the 
organic  union  of  the  denominations,  but  they  have 
lacked  the  knowledge  of  church  history  and  the 
leadership  to  carry  it  through  against  the  passive 
resistance  of  the  rank  and  file  and  the  active  opposition 
of  some  of  the  clergy.  An  all-inclusive  organic  union 
is  doubtless  visionary  for  the  present,  but  a  further 
combination  of  kindred  denominations  would  appear 
to  be  both  practicable  and  desirable.  Already  the 
Japanese  have  gone  far  in  that  direction:  the  results 
of  the  labors  of  the  four  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
missions  have  been  included  in  the  Nihon  Kirisuto 
Kyokai ;  the  work  of  the  two  American  and  one 
Canadian  Methodist  missions  has  contributed  to  the 
formation  of  the  single  Japan  Methodist  Church ; 
the  missionaries  of  the  Church  of  England,  the 
Church  of  England  in  Canada,  and  the  American 
Episcopal  Church  are  all  connected  with  the  Sei-ko- 
kwai ;  a  single  Association  of  Baptist  Churches  has 
grown  out  of  the  work  of  two  Baptist  missions.  The 
same  process  could  well  be  carried  further,  especially 
by  the  union,  respectively,  of  die  Disciples,  Christians, 
United  Brethren,  Methodist  Protestant,  and  Evan¬ 
gelical  Churches  with  congenial  larger  denominations. 
Then  later  a  formula  might  be  worked  out  for  a 
still  wider  union,  catholic  enough  to  allow  flexibility 
and  variety,  but  close  and  vital  enough  to  ensure  the 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


1 82 

strength  and  daring  that  come  from  unity  of  purpose 
and  of  general  policy.  In  hastening  this  consumma¬ 
tion  the  missionaries  must  play  varying  parts.  On 
the  union  of  the  larger,  independent  bodies  they  can 
exert  but  slight  influence.  But  on  the  union  of  the 
smaller  denominations,  which  still  depend  largely  on 
mission  funds,  they  can  exert  a  strong  influence; 
indeed,  hitherto  they  may  have  yielded  too  easily  when 
Japanese  leaders  have  objected  to  such  combinations, 
ostensibly  on  principle,  but  often,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
from  partisan  or  personal  motives. 

It  may  surprise  occidental  readers,  but  the  fact 
is  that  sectarianism  in  recent  years  has  been  more 
obstinately  perpetuated  by  the  Japanese,  especially  the 
clergy,  than  by  their  missionary  colleagues.  The  laity, 
on  the  contrary,  would  generally  endorse  plans  for 
a  considerable  degree  of  church  union.  In  the  case, 
however,  of  the  union  or  federation  of  Christian 
schools  in  order  to  pave  the  way  for  a  union  Christian 
university,  it  was  the  Japanese  alumni  rather  than 
the  missionary  teachers  who  objected.  Has  not  the 
day  fully  come  when  a  more  resolute  effort  should 
be  made  both  in  Japan  and  among  the  supporting 
home  churches  to  present  a  united  fighting  front? 

Taking  the  situation  as  it  is,  the  next  important 
step  toward  the  effective  coordination  of  Christian 
forces  is  to  make  strong  the  recently  created  National 
Christian  Council,  which  is  composed  of  eighty-five 
representatives  appointed  by  the  various  churches  and 
missions,  (exclusive  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
Eastern  Orthodox)  and  fifteen  others  selected  by  these 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  183 

appointees.  Some  of  the  most  far-sighted  leaders  hope 
it  will  not  only  have  a  Japanese  majority — which  the 
constitution  ensures — but  that  in  the  course  of  time 
the  missionary  minority  may  give  way  so  that  the 
Council  will  become  practically  a  federation  of  the 
Japanese  churches.  Otherwise  the  churches  would 
need  to  perpetuate  the  present  rather  weak  Federation 
of  Churches,  and  unless  a  large  majority  in  the 
Council  were  Japanese,  there  would  be  danger  of  the 
more  aggressive  and  “committee-minded”  missionary 
members  exerting,  in  spite  of  themselves,  a  dominat¬ 
ing  influence. 

There  has  been  for  twenty  years  a  vigorous 
Federation  of  Christian  Missions,  which  includes 
thirty-three  mission  bodies.  It  has  promoted  coopera¬ 
tion  along  many  lines,  especially  in  evangelism  and 
in  literature.  It  has  published  the  monthly  Japan 
Evangelist  and  the  authoritative  year-book  called  The 
Christian  Movement  in  Japan ,  Korea ,  and  Formosa 
and  has  established  the  Christian  Literature  Society, 
whose  output  during  its  first  ten  years  has  totalled 
167,587,069  pages.  Evidently  there  will  be  need  for 
this  Federation  for  a  considerable  time;  but  just  as 
the  individual  missionary  strives  to  magnify  his 
Japanese  associates  and  to  pass  over  to  them  enter¬ 
prises  which  he  has  painfully  developed,  so  it  is 
natural  to  expect  the  Federation  of  Missions  to  plan 
and  seize  upon  opportunities  to  entrust  some  of  its 
functions  and  enterprises  to  the  National  Christian 
Council.  A  resolution  declaring  this  to  be  the  purpose 
of  the  Federation  was  adopted  at  its  annual  meeting 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


184 

in  1922.  The  question  arises  whether  the  time  may 
not  soon  come  when  the  Christian  Literature  Society 
should  be  transferred  to  the  Council. 

In  any  case,  the  Missions  should  leave  no  stone 
unturned  to  give  the  Council  the  men  and  the  means 
to  be  a  powerful  agent  of  the  entire  Christian  Move¬ 
ment.  An  ample  budget  and  an  able  Japanese 
Executive  Secretary  and  a  missionary  associate  would 
seem  to  be  required,  and  the  Missions  will  no  doubt 
count  it  a  privilege  to  make  the  sacrifices  required 
to  supply  them.  The  need  for  such  a  National 
Council  is  even  greater  in  japan  than  in  most  other 
countries,  for  the  reason  that  all  aspects  of  life — 
political,  educational,  economic,  and  religious — tend 
toward  a  national  and  centralized  organization.  The 
inherent  democracy  and  local  autonomy  of  the 
constituent  denominational  bodies  may  be  trusted  to 
prevent  over-centralization.  The  Council  will  be  a 
spokesman,  a  clearing-house,  and  an  advisory  general 
staff  for  all  its  members.  It  will  put  the  strength  of 
all  at  the  disposal  of  each. 

2.  Rearing  Japanese  leaders 

But  a  more  vital  requisite  for  a  victorious  Christian 
movement  is  an  adequate  supply  of  competent 
Japanese  leaders.  The  early  Japanese  converts,  such 
as  those  in  the  Kumamoto  and  Yokohama  bands, 
included  a  surprisingly  high  proportion  of  able 
leaders.  Fortunately,  many  of  them  are  still  in  harness 
and  pulling  more  than  their  share.  But  several  have 
already  died,  and  those  captains  courageous  who  are 


OSAKA  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH  ERECTED  IN  1922,  BY  CONTRIBUTIONS  FROM 
ITS  MEMBERS.  IT  HAS  HAD  ONE  PASTOR,  THE  VENERABLE  REV.  T.  MIYAGAWA, 
FOR  FORTY  YEARS  AND  HAS  BEEN  A  “MOTHER  OF  CHURCHES” 


NEW  BUILDING  AT  AOYAMA  GAKUIN,  ERECTED  AT  A  COST  OF  $  1 50,000,  CONTRIBUTED  BY 
AN  ALUMNUS.  JAPANESE  ALUMNI  WHO  HAVE  ATTAINED  AFFLUENCE  ARE  BEGINNING 

TO  GIVE  GENEROUSLY  TO  THEIR  COLLEGES 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  185 


left  must  within  a  few  years  find  successors.  And 

besides,  the  new  day  with  its  more  complex  problems 

will  call  for  even  abler  men  than  the  past.  As  each  ’ 

veteran  has  passed  on,  his  place  has  somehow  been 

filled,  and  among  the  middle-aged  leaders  are  men 

of  power.  But  speaking  generally,  it  seems  as  though 

the  decade  of  reaction — the  ’nineties — had  left  a  gap 

in  the  ranks.  That  cold  decade  chilled  the  earlv  flush 

* 

of  enthusiasm  for  the  adventure  of  Christian  service. 
The  lure  of  political  and  commercial  careers  has 
proved  stronger  for  many  men  than  the  rough, 
uncertain  road'  of  Christian  ministry,  and  not  a  few 
who  had  stilled  conscience  by  resolving  to  devote  to 
the  advancement  of  the  Kingdom  the  prestige  and 
wealth  they  might  win  in  secular  pursuits,  have 
drifted  far  from  their  early  purpose.  The  net  result 
is  that  all  the  Christian  callings  are  short  of  men  and 
women  equal  to  the  exacting  demands  of  the  times. 

And  what  of  the  remedy?  It  would  be  folly  to 
pretend  that  there  is  any  short  and  easy  way.  One 
rich  source  of  supply,  hitherto  but  slightly  worked, 
is  the  student  body  of  the  government  high  schools 
and  colleges.  Of  course  the  Christian  schools  will 
furnish  many  workers,  especially  if  their  supporters 
do  not  grow  weary  in  giving  the  funds  to  raise 
their  standards.  But  the  government  schools  have 
twelve  times  as  many  men  and  women  in  them  and,  as 
a  rule,  the  brightest  in  the  land.  Particular  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  high  schools  and  vocational 
schools, — well-nigh  a  thousand  of  them, — for  students 
make  the  great  decisions  in  their  teens.  Here  is  a 


G-Jap 


1 86 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


field  where  many  a  missionary  man  or  woman  will 
find  a  fascinating  opportunity.  It  might  not  be 
excessive  if  every  tenth  missionary  were  chosen  with 
reference  to  such  work — well-educated,  attractive, 
willing  to  work  quietly  with  small  groups,  and  irradi¬ 
ated  with  the  love  of  Christ  for  heart-hungry  youths. 
Let  such  a  man  or  woman  settle  near  a  school  or  two, 
keep  open  house  and  open  heart,  use  the  Bible  and 
intimate  talks,  games  and  athletics,  music  and  English 
conversation  and  literature  and  social  science,  all  to 
light  men’s  way  to  the  Master.  The  results  might  be 
slow,  but  they  would  be  sure  and  cumulative,  and  out 
of  it  would  come  ministers  and  teachers  and  laymen 
of  ability,  anchored  in  faith  against  all  storms.  This 
is  not  a  fine-spun  theory:  the  early  missionaries  did 
something  like  it,  and  some  are  now  doing  it.  Among 
them  are  women  missionaries  whose  unheralded  work 
among  high  school  boys  has  been  fruitful  beyond 
computation.  There  are  such  missionaries  in  Sendai, 
and  others  in  Okayama,  Tokyo,  and  Sapporo,  who, 
beside  doing  arduous  work  among  women,  have 
poured  themselves  into  the  lives  of  government  school 
lads  and  have  been  rewarded  by  seeing  man  after  man 
develop  into  stalwart  Christian  leadership.  It  should 
be  said  that  their  labors  have  been  closely  interwoven 
with  the  remarkable  Bible  classes  for  students  con¬ 
ducted  by  Dr.  K.  Sasao  and  other  Japanese  professors. 

A  glance  over  the  Empire  discloses  a  growing 
group  of  younger  leaders  who  have  resulted  from 
just  such  quiet  work.  One  thinks  of  such  pastors  as 
Rev.  H.  Hatanaka  of  Kyoto,  who  calls  the  missionary 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  187 

guide  of  his  youth  “Mother'’ ;  Pastor  Yanagihara 
of  the  Sei  Ko  Kwai  in  Osaka,  who  owes  much  to 
consecrated  parents  and  also  to  missionary  friends ; 
Rev.  Z.  Ono  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  Kofu,  a 
flaming  evangelist  among  schoolboys ;  of  such  laymen, 
graduates  of  Imperial  Universities,  as  Dr.  S.  Yoshino, 
professor  in  Tokyo  Imperial  University  and  leading 
exponent  of  liberalism  and  international  cooperation; 
Dr.  F.  Usawa,  member  of  the  Imperial  Educational 
Council  as  well  as  of  Parliament;  Motoi  Kurihara, 
teacher,  writer,  and  translator  of  Dr.  Fosdick’s 
volumes;  Soichi  Saito,  national  general  secretary  of 
the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Associations;  Takeshi 
Saito,  professor  in  Tokyo  Imperial  University; 
Chikayoshi  Nakatsu,  manufacturer  ;  Setsuzo  Sawada, 
diplomat  and  peace-maker;  and  of  the  noble  cohort 
of  younger  women  represented  by  Miss  Michi  Kawai, 
national  general  secretary  of  the  Young  Women’s 
Christian  Associations,  and  Miss  Yasui,  dean  of  Tokyo 
Women’s  Union  College.  All  of  these  and  many  more 
pillars  of  the  Church  would  gladly  acknowledge  their 
deep  debt  to  some  self-obscuring  missionary  or  pastor 
or  teacher,  whose  life,  through  them,  has  been 
multiplied  a  hundredfold.  When  one  begins  thus  to 
run  down  the  lengthening  list,  one  feels  new  assur¬ 
ance  for  the  future  of  the  Christian  movement.  One 
is  also  encouraged  to  believe  that  these  brilliant  young 
leaders,  at  home  in  both  Eastern  and  Western  thought, 
will  serve  as  channels  through  whom  the  Japanese  will 
make  their  unique  contribution  toward  the  completer 
expression  of  the  many-sided  Christ. 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


1 88 

A  second  source  of  leaders,  too  little  tapped  as  yet, 
is  that  reservoir  of  manhood,  the  village  and  small 
town.  Japan  is  still  a  nation  of  peasants,  for  seventy- 
five  per  cent  are  tillers  of  the  land  and  fishermen.  The 
army  and  the  factories  go  to  the  countryside  for 
their  recruits.  Many  of  the  sages  and  apostles  and 
statesmen  of  Old  Japan  were  bred  there.  But  the 
Christian  Church,  in  spite  of  all  its  valuation  of  the 
common  man  and  the  precedent  of  Jesus’  peasant 
disciples,  has  somehow  found  little  time  for  getting 
hold  of  the  sturdy  Japanese  peasant.  The  main 
reason  has  been  a  shortage  of  workers  and  funds, 
but  there  has  also  been  a  conviction  that  concentrating 
in  the  dominating  centers,  as  St.  Paul  did,  was  wise 
strategy.  And  with  some,  perhaps,  the  obsession  of 
numbers  has  been  too  strong.  Some  years  ago  I  tried 
to  persuade  a  Japanese  pastor  who  had  studied  in 
America  to  take  a  country  charge  which  his  bishop 
was  offering  him.  I  pictured  how  he  could  become 
the  guide  and  confidant  of  hundreds  of  farmers  and 
their  children  and  mold  the  civic  and  social  as  well 
as  religious  life  of  a  county;  how  he  would  be  dealing, 
not  with  the  transients  of  a  city  church,  but  with  the 
most  stable  group  in  the  country.  He  couldn’t  catch 
the  vision,  and  has  since  lived  a  respectable  but 
apparently  humdrum  life  as  a  worker  in  a  great  city. 
The  solemnizing  fact  is  that  four  out  of  five  of  the 
country  dwellers  have  never  been  reached  by  any 
Christian  worker.  Of  late  years  a  number  of  mis¬ 
sionaries  have  moved  into  the  smaller  cities  so  as  to 
be  in  closer  touch  with  their  country  fields. 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  189 

The  most  determined  and  resourceful  effort  to  work 
the  rural  lode  is  Omi  Mission  on  Lake  Biwa.  If 
anyone  fancies  that  romance  and  novelty  have  faded 
out  of  missionary  service  in  Japan,  let  him  not  fail 
to  go  to  Hachiman  and  see  with  his  own  eyes  a 
veritable  miracle.* 

In  1905  William  Merrell  Vories  was  called  as  a 
“Y.  M.  C.  A.  English  teacher”  to  the  commercial  high 
school  at  Hachiman.  He  accepted  the  call  because  he 
had  early  resolved  to  go  somewhere  to  an  unoccupied 
field  and  work  as  a  self-supporting  missionary.  When 
the  number  of  his  student  converts  aroused  opposition 
and  cost  him  his  post,  he  turned  to  architecture  for 
support.  Today  he  is  surrounded  by  seventy  men  and 
women,  mostly  Japanese,  an  intensely  happy,  busy 
family,  engaged  not  only  in  building  goodly  structures 
all  over  the  Empire,  but  preeminently  in  building 
Christ  into  the  lives  of  the  farmers  and  village  folk 
of  a  province.  A  student  hostel,  two  railway  men’s 
clubhouses,  the  steam  launch  “Galilee.  Mam,”  a  tuber¬ 
culosis  sanitarium,  kindergartens  and  active  churches 
have  sprung  up,  one  after  another.  The  sanitorium 
was  recently  declared,  by  the  head  of  the  largest 
government  pulmonary  hospital,  to  be  the  best  in 
Japan.  In  19 22  Mr.  Vories  was  requested  by  the 

*  Far-sighted  civil  and  military  officials  have  done  all  in  their 
power  to  develop  the  Young  Men’s  Associations,  especially  in  the 
country  districts.  The  Associations  number  16,694,  having  2,703,- 
447  members,  expenditures  of  2,052,160  yen  in  1920,  and  property 
valued  at  5,789,300  yen.  In  some  places  they  have  done  much  to 
benefit  their  communities.  They  are  supposed  to  be  non -religious, 
but  generally  they  are  made  media  for  strengthening  State  Shinto. 
(See  pamphlet  published  by  Home  Department,  1922.) 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


290 

Minister  of  the  Interior  to  serve  as  Counselor  to  the 
National  Commission  on  Housing-.  Equally  remark¬ 
able  is  the  fact  that  in  an  official  textbook  on  ethics, 
Omi  Mission  is  described  as  a  bright  example  of  com¬ 
munity  helpfulness.  The  platform  of  Omi  Mission 
is  only  twenty  lines  long,  but  it  is  notable  for  its 
daring  originality : 

1.  To  preach  the  gospel  of  Christ  in  the  Province 
of  Omi,  Japan,  without  reference  to  denominations. 
There  being  no  “Omi  Mission  Church,”  converts  to 
be  organized  into  self-supporting  congregations  of  the 
denominations  of  their  own  choice. 

2.  To  practice  the  complete  unifying  of  the  work 
and  fellowship  of  Japanese  and  foreign  workers. 

3.  To  evangelize  communities  unoccupied  by  any 
Protestant  Mission,  and  under  no  circumstances  to 
overlap  with  the  work  of  such  Missions. 

4.  To  evangelize  rural  communities,  as  the  most 
conservative  element  of  the  nation,  and  the  most 
probable  source  of  leadership. 

5.  To  seek,  enlist,  and  train  leaders  and  workers. 

6.  To  work  for  social  reforms,  including  temper¬ 
ance,  social  purity,  marriage  customs,  physical  and 
sanitary  betterment,  and  definite  efforts  for  the  poor 
and  the  “out-casts.” 

It  is  a  logical  as  well  as  romantic  sequel  to  the 
tale  that  four  years  ago  Mr.  Vories  was  married  to 
the  daughter  of  Viscount  Hitotsuyanagi.  The  family 
was  very  ancient  and  proud.  It  was  opposed  to 
Christianity,  but  the  daughter  had  been  converted  in 
America,  where  she  graduated  from  Bryn  Mawr 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  191 

College.  It  was  “the  first  case  in  history  of  a  Japanese 
noble  giving  up  rank  and  nationality  in  order  to  marry 
a  foreigner  of  no  rank,”  a  striking  example  of  the 
superiority  to  race,  rank,  and  worldly  advantage 
which  true  Christian  faith  engenders  and  for  which 
Omi  Mission  stands.  The  number  of  diamonds  in 
the  rough  found  by  Mr.  Vories  and  his  colleagues 
among  the  yokels  of  Omi  confirms  the  claim  that  the 
Christian  movement  can  find  many  of  its  needed 
leaders  in  the  country. 

At  this  point  attention  should  be  called  to  the  respec¬ 
tive  advantages  of  two  contrasted  types  of  church 
polity  for  the  nurturing  of  Japanese  leaders.  The  Con¬ 
gregational,  Presbyterian,  Baptist,  Methodist,  and 
various  other  missions  have  naturally  magnified  the 
independence  and  self-support  of  the  Japanese  Church. 
Each  congregation  and  minister  enjoys  almost  com¬ 
plete  autonomy.  The  result  has  been  to  call  forth 
initiative  and  self-reliance  in  the  Japanese.  Men  of 
independent,  aggressive  character  have  been  attracted 
to  these  denominations.  The  unfavorable  side  of  the 
system  was  the  tendency,  during  the  ’nineties,  when 
the  entire  nation  was  self-assertive  and  impatient  of 
foreign  control,  for  the  missionary  and  Japanese 
workers  to  fall  apart  and  hence  to  deprive  the  Japanese 
of  the  steadying  and  stimulating  influence  of  the 
“thoroughbred  Christian”  missionary.  The  Anglican 
missions,  on  the  other  hand,  have  magnified  the  historic 
continuity  and  universal  oneness  of  the  Church  and  the 
necessity  of  a  prolonged  period  of  training  and  sub¬ 
ordination  for  the  Japanese  workers  under  an  ordained 


1 92 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


missionary  superior.  The  local  congregations,  like¬ 
wise,  are  not  granted  autonomy  and  less  stress  is  laid 
on  self-support.  The  result  has  been  to  develop 
Japanese  workers  of  less  initiative  but  of  deeper 
grounding  in  the  faith  and  finer  appreciation  of  the 
mystical  elements  in  Christianity.  Both  of  these 
systems  manifestly  have  certain  distinctive  advan¬ 
tages,  for  both  types  of  leaders  are  needed  in  the 
Church. 

There  are  certain  obstacles  to  securing  able  Japanese 
leaders  which  missionaries  can  help  remove.  One 
of  them  lies  in  the  quite  wholesome  dread  on  the 
part  of  a  sensitive  Japanese  of  being  bossed  or 
supported  by  a  foreigner.  He  dreads  it  partly  from 
samurai  pride,  perhaps,  but  equally  because  it  degrades 
him  and  undercuts  his  influence  with  his  own  people. 

Other  obstacles  are  the  low  salaries  and  precarious 
future  of  a  Christian  calling  for  a  man  with  a  growing 
family  in  a  country  where  living  expenses  insist  on 
rising  and  where  men  in  civil  and  business  life  get 
generous  bonuses  and  retiring  allowances.  The  cases 
of  self-sacrifice  already  referred  to  show  that  the 
Japanese  Christian  worker  is  not  looking  for  luxury 
or  honor,  but  there  are  limits  to  the  compulsory 
heroism  which  an  unimaginative  superintendent  may 
impose  on  a  young  Japanese  dependent  upon  him. 

J.  Sharing  and  transferring  responsibility 

Many  a  foreign  missionary  has  insisted  too  long 
upon  disbursing  all  funds  granted  for  evangelism  by 
his  home  board.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  just 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  193 

when  he  should  let  go  of  them,  but  some  men  have 
wasted  their  own  strength  and  impaired  their  finer 
influence  by  failing  to  entrust  funds  more  fully  to 
Japanese  colleagues.  To  be  sure,  some  of  the  dollars 
might  possibly  appear  to  go  further  if  the  missionary 
were  handling  them,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  if  they 
would  carry  so  much  of  the  love  and  power  of  Christ 
with  them.  I  do  not  doubt  that  scores  of  Japanese  of 
the  largest  caliber  have  been  repelled  from  Christian 
service  by  the  domineering  spirit  and  close  financial 
control  of  a  few  missionaries  whose  reputations  have 
hurt  the  entire  missionary  body.  The  equality  of  all 
clergymen,  whether  Japanese  or  missionaries  in  the 
Methodist  Church,  and  the  fact  that  the  Bishop  is  a 
Japanese  have  reduced  friction  in  this  Church.  De¬ 
cided  steps  in  the  right  direction  have  recently  been 
taken  by  several  of  the  non-episcopal  missions  by 
giving  control  of  evangelistic  funds  and  of  the  assign¬ 
ment  of  missionaries  to  a  board  composed  not  less 
than  half  of  Japanese.  In  the  case  of  the  American 
(Congregational)  Board,  it  is  composed  of  fifteen 
Japanese  and  only  three  foreign  members.  An  increas¬ 
ing  volume  of  missionary  opinion  supports  the  view 
that  no  new  work  should  be  undertaken  without  the 
approval  of  the  Japanese  Church  concerned. 

4  Christian  educational  institutions  need  strength¬ 
ening 

The  strengthening  of  the  Christian  schools  is  one 
of  the  salient  needs  of  the  day.  No  one  would 
deny  the  importance  of  laying  siege  to  the  government 


194 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


school  student  body,  but  it  is  likewise  vitally  important 
to  create  a  chain  of  Christian  schools,  of  the  highest 
quality,  in  every  section  of  the  Empire.  In  the  long 
run,  this  would  be  one  of  the  most  highly  multiplying 
uses  of  missionary  men  and  money.  Who  prates  of 
the  competition  between  the  evangelistic  and  the 
educational  work?  They  are  one  and  inseparable, 
interacting  organs  of  one  body.  The  schools  work 
on  the  most  plastic  minds,  not  for  a  few  minutes  a 
week,  but  for  months  on  end.  They  operate  by  peace¬ 
ful  penetration,  not  by  sudden  attack;  but  in  a  true 
sense  they  are  evangelistic. 

The  Christian  schools  have  been  sharing  with  all 
other  schools  a  remarkable  rush  of  applicants.  The 
commercial  departments  opened  by  several  of  them 
have  proved  so  popular  as  to  threaten  to  commercialize 
the  institutions  and  weaken  their  decided  Christian 
spirit.  The  increased  income  thus  brought  in  becomes 
a  subtle  temptation.  This  phenomenon  only  throws 
into  higher  relief  the  need  for  larger  funds  from 
Christians  abroad  in  order  to  enable  the  Christian 
schools  to  raise  their  faculties  and  equipments  to  such 
a  pitch  of  excellence  as  to  attract  the  best  students 
and  hold  them  to  graduation.  The  achievements 
of  the  Christian  schools  are  remarkable  when  con¬ 
trasted  with  their  meager  equipment  and  resources. 

*  But  if  one  may  hazard  a  guess,  a  fifty  per  cent 
increase  in  the  grants  for  maintenance  and  buildings 
made  by  the  Mission  Boards  would  double  the  net 
productivity  of  the  schools.  And  the  yield  of  every 
lower  school  would  be  much  increased  if,  by  a  com- 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  195 

bination  of  Japanese  and  American  resources,  one 
Christian  university  of  the  highest  grade  could  be 
established.  It  would  form  a  much  needed  capstone 
to  the  whole  Christian  system  and  would  go  far  to 
supply  the  present  great  deficiency  of  highly  trained, 
thoroughly  Christian  teachers  for  the  lower  institu¬ 
tions.  Besides  strengthening  the  individual  schools 
and  planting  some  new  ones,  the  Christian  forces 
should  set  up  a  central  educational  bureau  of  research 
and  service  served  by  educational  specialists.  Thus  by 
every  possible  means  effort  should  be  focussed  upon 
making  the  Christian  schools  preeminent  for  quality, 
not  for  size. 

5.  The  challenging  opportunities  for  social  work 

The  menacing  conditions  created  by  the  industrial 
upheaval  have  been  described  in  an  earlier  chapter. 
The  very  foundations  of  the  family  and  of  the  old 
religious  and  ethical  standards  are  being  pulverized 
by  the  shock.  The  principles  and  spirit  of  Christ 
are  not  the  only  factors  at  work  to  avert  disaster, 
but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  they  are  the  most  potent 
and  deep.  What  a  challenging  opportunity  for  a  few 
choice  missionaries  thoroughly  trained  in  social  and 
economic  science  and  moved  by  a  deep  Christian 
purpose !  They  would  get  close  to  working  people 
and  employers  alike,  making  their  own  homes  a 
trysting  place  for  perplexed  souls,  calling  into  being 
neighborhood  houses  and  laborers’  friendly  societies, 
and  interlocking  groups  of  employers  and  employed. 
They  would  work  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  brave 


1 96  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

spirits  like  Mr.  Kagawa  of  the  Kobe  slums,  or  Rev. 
S.  Sugiura  of  the  True  Light  Church  in  lower  Tokyo, 
or  Mr.  Mikimoto,  the  “culture  pearF’  manufacturer, 
among  whose  employees  a  group  of  one  hundred 
believers  has  grown  up,  or  with  other  Christian  em¬ 
ployers  who  are  striving  to  incorporate  the  Golden 
Rule  into  Japanese  business. 

Keen  American  university  men  or  women,  filled 
with  the  Christian  social  passion  -and  ambitious  to 
blaze  new  trails,  will  find  plenty  of  chances  in  Japan. 
Let  me  give  an  illustration,  just  as  striking  in  some 
ways  as  Omi  Mission.  A  few  years  ago  a  young 
Toronto  University  man  and  his  wife,  the  Rev.  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  P.  G.  Price,  came  to  Japan  under  the  Can¬ 
adian  Methodist  Mission.  For  several  years  they 
studied  the  language  and  worked  among  the  people 
in  a  bigoted  Buddhist  province  on  the  northern  coast. 
Meanwhile  they  were  becoming  versed  in  the  life 
and  thought  of  the  common  people  and  were  making 
a  study  of  the  way  in  which  industrialism  is  affecting 
the  entire  nation  even  out  in  the  mountain  hamlets. 
Then  they  were  transferred  to  Tokyo,  to  carry  on  a 
neighborhood  house  already  begun  by  Dr.  Saunby,  an 
older  missionary,  who  had  fallen  ill.  But  the  hero 
of  the  story  is  a  Japanese,  Mr.  Yataro  Kobayashi, 
whose  interest  was  aroused  by  the  missionaries.  His 
career  reads  like  a  novel — yet  I  have  known  several 
others  as  remarkable. 

Mr.  Kobayashi  is  the  son  of  a  millionaire  sugar 
merchant.  As  a  youth  he  was  sent  to  Kobe  to  learn 
the  business.  While  there,  he  found  lodgings  in  the 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  197 

home  of  a  fine  Christian,  Dr.  Yoshioka,  then  president 
of  Kwansei  Methodist  College.  That  home  deeply 
impressed  him.  Later  he  went  to  America,  still 
studying  sugar.  There  he  was  led  into  the  Christian 
life.  A  university  course  clouded  his  faith,  and  it 
was  only  after  some  years  of  distress  that  he  recovered 
it  and  united  with  Central  Tabernacle  in  Tokyo. 
Dr.  Saunby  was  looking  for  a  residence  in  the 
poorer  quarter  of  -  the  city  in  order  to  start  social 
work,  when  in  Negishi,  he  came  upon  a  large  vacant 
house  with  a  lovely  garden.  It  transpired  that  Mr. 
Kobayashi  owned  it,  and  he  insisted  upon  giving  it 
outright  to  the  mission  for  social  and  religious  work. 
This  is  worth  at  least  $25,000.  Soon  after  this,  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Price  came  upon  the  scene,  and  found  in  Mr. 
Kobayashi  an  indefatigable  team-mate.  After  study¬ 
ing  all  existing  social  work  in  the  city,  they  made 
their  own  plans.  Mr.  Kobayashi  volunteered  to  carry 
the  entire  budget  for  five  years,  arid  besides,  he 
bought  in  Nippon*,  a  slum  district,  an  old  factory 
and  remodelled  it  so  as  to  house  a  dav  school,  relief 
bureau,  dispensary,  and  Japanese  pastor’s  residence. 

The  staff  of  the  settlement  includes  a  pastor- 
manager,  a  doctor,  a  nurse  and  a  midwife,  two  relief 
workers  and  four  teachers.  The  day  school  has  one 
hundred  and  thirty  children,  who  are  given  a  little 
industrial  training  besides  the  three  R’s.  It  was 
illuminating  to  discover  that  there  were  six  hundred 
children  of  school  age  in  that  one  district  (Nippon) 
not  attending  school,  partly  because  so  many  of  them 
had  never  been  “registered.”  The  proportion  of 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


198 

illegitimate  unregistered  children  is  high.  One  of 
the  relief  workers  makes  a  specialty  of  getting  both 
children  and  marriages  registered — matters  of  unusual 
importance  in  Japan.  Records  of  the  settlement  ac¬ 
tivities  and  of  investigations  are  carefully  kept,  and 
the  entire  work  is  being  run  on  scientific  lines.  Close 
contact  is  maintained  between  the  settlement  and  the 
mother  church,  Central  Tabernacle.  Through  Mr. 
Kobayashi's^  earnest  personal  work  numbers  of 
students  have  been  drawn  into  the  church,  and  they 
are  being  drafted  for  service  at  the  settlement.  In 
order  the  better  to  equip  them,  a  Social  Service 
Library  has  been  opened  in  a  quiet  room  at  the 
Tabernacle,  accessible  to  members  of  the  group. 

A  promising  institutional  church  is  being  devel¬ 
oped  in  the  house  in  Negishi,  and  still  other  centers 
are  soon  to  be  opened  up.  In  all  this  fascinating 
game  of  Christian  geometrical  progression,  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Price  have  been  the  pathfinders  and  Mr. 
Kobayashi  their  loyal  partner  and  financier.  One  is 
not  surprised  to  have  the  missionary  concerned  pen 
these  prophetic  sentences : 

It  seems  to  me  that  there  is  no  more  hopeful  place  for 
evangelism  than  in  the  suburbs  of  Tokyo  at  the  present  time. 
I  know  in  the  older  sections  Christian  work  is  difficult,  but 
in  the  newer  sections  where  the  families  who  have  moved  in 
are  living  away  from  temple  or  shrine  influence,  I  think  we 
have  the  most  hopeful  field  in  all  Japan.  I  believe,  for  in¬ 
stance,  that  it  would  be  possible  to  open  up  next  year  twenty 
new  churches  in  the  suburbs  of  Tokyo  without  any  of  these 
churches  infringing  upon  any  other.  I  expect  that  within  a 
year  we  shall  move  to  some  other  location  and  begin  over 
again. 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  199 


6.  Work  among  neglected  groups 

But  there  are  large  sections  and  classes  of  the 
Japanese  people  who  have  thus  far  remained  as  little 
touched  by  Christianity  as  the  industrial  workers. 
Among  them  are  the  farmers  (already  mentioned), 
the  nobility,  the  fishermen,  the  miners,  the  outcasts, 
and  the  lepers,  all  of  them  hitherto  outside  the  main 
currents  of  Christian  influence.  Yet  they  are  not 
impervious. 

The  Jesuit  missionaries  in  the  sixteenth  century 
won  quite  a  following  among  the  nobles,  but  in  modern 
times  converts  have  come  from  the  middle  classes. 
Both  social  extremes  have  been  hard  to  reach.  Now 
and  then  there  has  been  a  notable  exception.  Vis¬ 
count  Arinori  Mori,  the  eminent  diplomat  and 
Minister  of  Education,  is  said  by  his  relatives  to 
have  been  an  earnest  though  unconfessed  Christian. 
He  certainly  gave  courageous  backing  to  Neesima 
when  he  was  struggling  to  found  Doshisha,  and  today 
his  son  is  a  Christian  minister  and  his  widow  is  a 
faithful  member  of  Dr.  Uemura’s  church.  Another 
little  known  case  was  Mrs.  Merrell  Vories’  mother, 
Viscountess  Hitotsuyanagi,  who,  in  1868,  when  there 
were  only  four  or  five  baptized  Protestant  Christians, 
professed  and  held  to  her  new-found  faith  in  the  face 
of  bitter  persecution.  It  would  have  been  a  misfortune 
if  the  modern  Christian  movement  had  been  inflated 
by  the  adherence  in  the  earlier  years  of  a  considerable 
number  of  the  high  nobility.  The  Church  has  needed 
testing  and  seasoning.  But  today  for  their  own 


200 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


sakes  as  well  as  for  the  general  cause,  it  is  high 
time  that  more  effort  were  made  to  reach  them.  The 
unmistakably  friendly  interest  of  the  Prince  Regent 
and  the  Princess  in  things  Christian  is  having  a 
favorable  effect.  The  Counselor  to  the  Prince 
Regent,  Viscount  Chinda,  is  a  product  of  Christian 
education  both  in  Japan  and  in  America.  Viscount 
Fukuoka  has  long  been  identified  with  the  Sei  Ko 
Kwai  and  everything  Christian,  and  several  other 
members  of  the  House  of  Peers  were  educated  in 
Christian  colleges.  Yet,  so  conservative  are  the  Im¬ 
perial  Court  and  the  nobility  in  general,  and  so 
powerfully  intrenched  are  the  forces  of  nationalistic 
conservatism  in  all  the  seats  of  power  that  the 
Christian  forces  will  find  ample  exercise  for  all  their 
faith  before  marked  victories  are  won. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  social  scale  are  the  903,022 
former  outcasts,  Eta  (much  defiled)  who  are  even 
yet  ostracised  by  other  classes.  They  are  generally 
scavengers,  butchers,  or  leather  workers.  The  gov¬ 
ernment  is  striving  to  educate  and  help  them,  and 
individual  Buddhists  and  Christians  are  carrying  on 
relief  and  sanitary  work  in  a  few  Eta  villages.  In 
Omi  province  one  Christian  physician  found  half  of 
the  population  of  a  village  of  eight  hundred  suffer¬ 
ing  from  trachoma.  He  gave  4,500  treatments  free 
of  charge  and  practically  eradicated  the  disease  in 
that  village.  In  order  to  follow  up  the  improvement 
he  had  begun,  he  has  since  supported  two  social 
workers  in  the  village.  The  churches  and  mission¬ 
aries  as  a  whole,  however,  have  neglected  the  Eta, 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  201 

leaving  them  to  resort  to  mongrel  superstitions  and 
idolatry. 

Among  the  50,000  lepers,  Christian  missionaries 
have  been  comparatively  active.  The  first  two  leper 
hospitals  in  the  Empire  were  established  by  mission¬ 
aries  and  were  perhaps  the  chief  means  of  arousing 
the  government  to  enter  the  field.  The  Home  of 
the  Resurrection  of  Hope,  as  the  hospital  conducted 
by  English  lady  missionaries  is  called,  is  at  once  a 
pathetic  and  a  cheering  place  to  visit,  for  the  spirit 
of  the  Great  Physician  irradiates  the  whole  place. 
The  government  makes  modest  grants-in-aid  to  the 
private  leper  hospitals,  as  to  other  philanthropic 
enterprises.  The  Union  Christian  Leper  Hospital 
near  Tokyo  obtains  half  its  support  from  govern¬ 
ment  and  other  Japanese  sources,  and  half  from  the 
International  Mission  for  Lepers.  Dr.  William  C. 
Sturgis  calls  Miss  Cornwall-Legh’s  work  among  the 
lepers  at  the  Kasatsu  hot-springs,  “the  most  impres¬ 
sive  evidence  of  God’s  grace  that  I  saw  in  Japan. 

There  is  no  outstanding  instance  of  evangelism 
or  social  ministry  among  the  miners,  whose  harsh 
conditions  of  labor  and  isolation  from  the  life  of 
the  outside  world  make  a  strong  appeal  to  Christian 
sympathy. 

Although  the  fisher-folk  form  one  twentieth  of 
the  population,  there  is  comparatively  little  effort 
put  forth  to  evangelize  them.  They  are  scattered 
like  a  fringe  all  around  the  indented  coast,  and  like 
Norsemen  they  revel  in  the  freedom  of  their  hazard¬ 
ous  trade.  From  among  them  are  recruited  a  goodly 


202 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


proportion  of  the  hardy  sailors  who  man  Japan's 
men-of-war  and  merchantmen.  Perhaps  the  most 
successful  and  picturesque  foreign  missionary  enter¬ 
prise  among  seafarers  anywhere  is  that  started  by 
Captain  Luke  Bickel  in  the  Inland  Sea,  which  will 
be  described  further  on.  It  is  another  evidence  that 
the  day  of  surprising  innovations  is  not  past  in  Japan 
and  that  the  most  clannish  and  ossified  groups  will 
yield  to  a  combination  of  ingenuity  and  self-giving 
love. 

/.  Impregnating  Japanese  thought  with  Christian 
thought 

Only  second  in  importance  to  raising  up  competent 
Japanese  leaders  is  the  problem  of  injecting  a  power¬ 
ful  infusion  of  the  spirit  and  principles  of  Jesus  Christ 
into  the  turgid  thought  currents  that  are  sweeping 
through  the  people. 

Although  Christian  ideas  have  widely  permeated 
the  literature  and  life  of  the  nation,  they  are  far 
from  dominant.  There  is  danger  lest  the  little 
Christian  minority — onty  one  in  two  hundred — will 
be  swept  into  a  side  eddy  and  will  not  realize  that 
they  are  not  in  the  main  current.  The  Church  and 
its  auxiliary  agencies  need  to  be  on  guard  against 
getting  set  hard  in  the  mold  of  programs  and  for¬ 
mulas  which  are  not  vitally  responsive  to  the  needs 
of  each  changing  day.  In  Japan  the  Church  as  a 
whole  shows  no  leaning  toward  such  asceticism  of 
other-worldliness  as  earned  for  the  early  Christians 
the  epithet  “third  race/’  but  there  are  some  Japanese 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  203 

Christians  and  foreign  missionaries  who  fail  to 
appreciate  and  cooperate  with  the  constructive  new 
movements  springing  up  all  around  them,  or  to  enter 
into  the  travail  of  the  souls  struggling  amid  the 
conflict  of  new  and  old  ideals.  They  only  faintly 
realize  that  a  stupendous  upheaval  is  taking  place, 
that  New  Japan  is  having  a  rebirth.  At  such  a 
juncture  an  outstanding  need  is  for  more  leaders,  both 
foreigners  and  Japanese,  who,  like  their  Master,  can 
ride  the  storm  and  still  it.  To  do  that  demands 
both  intellectual  and  spiritual  power  of  a  high  order. 
Men  of  the  requisite  spiritual  power  are  even  rarer 
than  those  of  large  intellectual  caliber.  A  few  of 
the  Japanese  and  missionary  leaders  possess  both: 
they  are  of  apostolic  mold. 

The  task  of  leavening  the  thought  of  Japan  calls, 
not  only  for  powerful  Christian  personalities,  but 
for  the  more  adequate  use  of  literature.  For  all 
that  has  been  achieved  by  the  missionary  publishing 
agencies  and  the  Christian  Japanese  publishing  firms, 
one  may  be  unfeignedly  grateful,  but  today,  in  face 
of  the  welter  of  unsettling  and  often  debasing  litera¬ 
ture  that  is  being  poured  over  the  nation,  no  pica¬ 
yune,  sentimental,  or  second-rate  Christian  output 
will  get  attention.  The  half  mile  of  book  stalls  in 
Tokyo’s  student  quarter  is  filled  with  an  astonishing 
variety  of  recent  occidental  books,  and  the  magazines 
abound  in  half-digested  and  revolutionary  ideas.  The 
situation  calls  for  the  mobilizing  of  Christian  talent, 
particularly  of  rising  Japanese  writers.  Good  work 
has  been  done  by  the  Christian  Literature  Society  of 


204 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


the  Federation  of  Missions,  but  its  basis  should  be 
boldly  revamped  so  as  to  allow  equal  if  not  majority 
Japanese  membership,  and  funds  in  far  more  generous 
measure  should  be  given  to  it  by  the  missions  and  the 
churches.  The  same  is  true  of  the  “newspaper  evan¬ 
gelism/’  which  missionaries  have  nursed  through  the 
period  of  testing  to  assured  success.  Without  men¬ 
acing  its  evangelistic  effectiveness,  it  could  be  made 
more  appealing  and  be  integrated  more  closely  with 
the  churches  if  full  Japanese  partnership  were  invited. 

II.  THE  FUNCTION  OF  MISSIONARIES  IN  JAPAN  TODAY 

The  Japanese  Christians  do  not  all  answer  alike 
when  they  are  asked  how  many  more  missionaries  are 
needed  and  what  kinds.  Some  of  them  hold  that  while 
the  missionary  was  indispensable  in  earlier  stages,  he 
should  now  leave  everything  to  the  Japanese  churches, 
except  for  teaching  in  the  Christian  schools  and  in 
highly  specialized  activities.  Even  money  from  abroad 
in  large  amounts  is  not  desirable,  they  hold.  This 
view  is  held  chiefly  by  laymen  and  by  some  of  the 
more  independent-minded  pastors.  They  represent 
the  left  wing. 

On  the  right  wing  is  another  group  of  Japanese, 
fortunately  few  in  number,  who  have  become  para¬ 
sitic.  They  have  been  so  long  used  to  depending  on 
foreign  missionary  leadership  and  money  that  it  is 
irksome  to  contemplate  the  necessity  of  standing  on 
their  own  feet.  Of  course  they  favor  more  mission¬ 
aries  and  more  money.  In  a  sense  these  are  “rice 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  205 

Christians,”  although  most  of  them  really  would  hold 
fast  to  their  faith  whatever  happened. 

1.  More  missionaries  of  the  right  kind  needed 

In  the  center  are  to  be  found  the  bulk  of  the 
Japanese  Christians.  They  appreciate  the  great 
service  of  the  missionary  body  nowadays  as  well  as 
in  the  earlier  stages.  Still,  they  are  not  blind  to 
the  shortcomings  of  the  missionaries  individually  or 
of  the  “system.”  They  would  say,  “Yes,  a  slight 
increase  of  the  missionary  force  may  be  desirable,  but 
far  more  to  be  desired  is  still  more  rigid  selection  of 
those  who  are  sent,  and  the  improvement  of  the 
working  relations  between  them  and  the  Japanese 
workers.”  This  view  would  also  represent  fairly 
well,  I  believe,  the  conviction  of  the  most  competent 
missionaries  in  Japan. 

The  chief  reasons  for  desiring  that  the  present 
missionary  force  be  maintained  and  slightly  enlarged 
are  these:  the  vast  majority  of  the  people  have  not 
been  and  cannot  be  effectively  brought  under  Christian 
influence  without  reinforcements :  the  forces  of  the 
opposition — crass  materialism,  corrupt  religions,  and 
mercenary  cults  misleading  the  people,  destructive 
moral  and  social  ideas  from  abroad — all  these  and 
more  call  for  a  more  aggressive  advance  by  the 
Christian  forces;  the  seasoned  spiritual  character  and 
the  specialized  training  possessed  by  the  best  type  of 
missionary  are  invaluable  to  the  Kingdom  of  God 
in  Japan. 


206  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

But  invariably  such  appeals  are  coupled  with  two 
provisos.  The  first  is  that  they  be  missionaries  of 
the  right  kind.  The  specifications  for  the  ‘Tight 
kind”  have  been  partially  brought  out  in  description 
of  various  representative  missionaries,  but  it  will 
be  well  to  state  all  of  them  together  here.  The 
missionaries  needed  will,  of  course,  differ  in  many 
ways,  but  the  attitudes  and  convictions  which  they 
all  must  have  without  exception  are  these :  ( i )  An 
absolute  loyalty  to  Christ  Jesus  as  Lord  and  Savior 
and  a  growing  experience  of  fellowship  with  God 
through  Him.  (2)  A  willingness  to  '‘play  second 
fiddle”  and  be  loyal,  whether  to  Japanese  or  to  fellow- 
missionaries.  (3)  A  primary  concern,  not  for  any 
denomination,  but  for  the  Kingdom  of  God,  and 
eagerness  to  cooperate  with  all  other  Christians  and 
men  of  good-will  in  its  realization.  (4)  A  flexible 
mind  and  teachable  spirit.  (5)  A  firm  grasp  of  the 
essentials  of  Christian  truth  and  an  earnest  desire 
to  bring  men  into  the  Christian  life.  (6)  A  sympathy 
superior  to  racial,  creedal,  and  national  distinctions. 
(7)  A  capacity  to  see  the  humorous  and  the  hopeful 
sides  of  every  situation.  (8)  A  refined  and  appre¬ 
ciative  spirit,  capable  of  appealing  to  the  romantic 
and  aesthetic  temper  of  the  Japanese.  (9)  A  char¬ 
acter  that  rings  true. 

Surely  these  are  not  unattainable  ideals.  Besides 
all  these  minimal  qualifications,  the  combinations  and 
degrees  of  attainments  are  almost  infinitely  varied. 
There  is  need  for  intellectual  giants  and  specialists 
able  to  master  the  Japanese  language  and  the  intri- 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  207 

cacics  of  oriental  religious  and  social  systems.  But 
there  is  also  need  for  technicians  and  executives,  expe¬ 
rienced  in  social  work  and  industrial  problems,  and 
able  to  organize  and  guide  bodies  of  men.  And 
there  is  always  need  for  physicians  of  the  heart,  rich 
in  sympathy  and  intuitive  insight,  glad  to  spend  time 
on  people,  without  thinking  of  schedules  or  reports. 
Sometimes  in  describing  the  kind  of  new  missionaries 
desired,  the  Japanese  hold  the  standard  discouragingly 
high.  But  the  verdict  of  the  sainted  Bishop  Honda 
gives  the  true  emphasis:  “What  Japan  supremely 
needs  from  the  West  is  missionaries  who  are  satu¬ 
rated  with  Jesus  Christ,  who  embody  the  fruits  of 
generations  of  Christian  breeding.1'  To  sum  up  the 
point :  a  welcome  and  a  career  in  Japan  are  to  be 
expected  only  by  missionaries  of  rich  personality,  of 
large  caliber. 

The  second  proviso  is  that  missionary-Japanese 
relationships  in  church  work  be  made  right.  That 
is,  of  course,  a  matter  of  making  the  heart  right  even 
more  than  the  formal  arrangement.  Hundreds  of 
missionaries  are  working  smoothly  and  effectively 
with  Japanese  associates.  But  there  is  more  maladjust¬ 
ment  than  appears  on  the  surface.  The  Japanese 
are  reticent  and  reluctant  to  complain,  especially 
when  they  know  their  missionary  associates  mean  well. 
The  missionaries  do  mean  well,  but  they  are  often, 
like  occidentals  generally,  dull  in  intuitive  perception, 
and  are  likely  to  take  at  face  value  the  conventional 
and  considerate  assurances  of  the  Japanese  that  all 
is  well.  A  loving,  unselfish  heart,  watchful  to  detect 


20S 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


friction,  is  certainly  the  first  requisite  for  a  solution. 
But  the  system  must  also  be  set  right,  lest  even  the 
best  of  intentions  be  thwarted.  Dr.  Arthur  D.  Berry 
expressed  the  basic  principle  in  these1  words:  “The 
independence  and  self-government  of  the  Church  in 
Japan  is  a  settled  fact.  The  missionary  who  is  not 
willing  to  recognize  it  and,  if  asked,  willing  to  work 
under  Japanese  direction,  should  be  recalled  and  sent 
to  some  other  field.”* 

The  polity  and  methods  of  control  in  the  various 
churches  will  necessarily  affect  the  application  of  this 
principle.  Bishop  Tucker  points  out  its  bearing  upon 
the  Anglican  communion  in  these  very  frank,  wise 
sentences : 

Foreign  and  Japanese  clergy  have  exactly  the  same  stand¬ 
ing  ...  in  all  legislation  and  formulation  of  policies. 
...  no  distinction  is  made  between  “native”  and  for¬ 
eigner.  The  Japanese  have  practical  control  because  of  their 
numbers.  In  theory  nothing  could  be  more  equitable  or  more 
conducive  to  genuine  cooperation  or  provide  more  ample 
scope  for  Japanese  initiative.  In  practice,  however,  the 
theory  breaks  down  in  two  respects.  The  first  is  the  authority 
of  the  Bishops,  all  of  whom  are  foreigners.  .  .  .  The 

employment,  dismissal,  and  locating  of  Japanese  evangelistic 
workers  is  determined  by  him,  except  where  their  salaries 
are  paid  by  the  native  congregations.  .  .  .  The  second 

point  is  that  the  control  of  the  support  which  comes  from 
abroad  is  in  foreign  hands.  ...  As  practically  all  evan¬ 
gelistic  policies  involve  the  expenditure  of  money,  it  is  evi¬ 
dent  that  Japanese  freedom  and  initiative  are  limited  to  the 
self-supporting  portion  of  the  work.  .  .  .  For  equipment 

also  the  native  pastor  must  either  secure  the  interest  of  the 

*  Address  before  the  Foreign  Missions  Conference  at  Beth¬ 
lehem,  Pa.,  January,  1923. 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  209 


Bishop  or  of  some  missionary,  or  else  go  without  improve¬ 
ments  needed  to  carry  out  his  plans.* 

Such  a  relationship  inevitably  conduces  to  inequality 
and  to  real,  though  concealed,  dissatisfaction.  The 
installation  of  Japanese  bishops  will  go  far  to  remedy 
this  situation.  As  Bishop  Tucker  observes:  “The 
moral  effect  of  a  native  bishop,  both  upon  Christians 
and  upon  non-Christians  would  undoubtedly  be  great. 
He  would  naturally  understand  conditions  better  and 
be  able  to  get  into  closer  touch  with  the  people  than  a 
foreigner.’’  The  Japan  Methodist  Church  has  had  a 
Japanese  bishop  ever  since  it  was  formed  fifteen  years 
ago  (by  the  union  of  three  bodies),  and  both  mission¬ 
aries  and  Japanese  clergy  have  worked  harmoniously 
under  him. 

The  sum  of  the  matter  is  that  for  the  individual 
missionary,  for  the  Mission  Board,  and  for  the 
Church,  the  supreme  concern  must  be  for  the  Kingdom 
of  God  in  Japan.  If  that  is  verily  sought  first  and 
fearlessly,  all  knotty  questions  of  relationship  can  be 
solved. 

There  is  one  more  point  which  ought  to  be  given 
more  emphasis  in  the  equipment  of  missionaries  and 
in  the  program  of  the  Christian  movement  in  Japan. 
It  is  suggested  by  the  now  well-worn  words  “religious 
education.”  Regardless  of  the  type  of  his  work,  the 
modern  missionary  should  realize  that  the  only  sound 
means  for  developing  mature  individual  Christians 
or  churches  is  through  an  educational  process.  There 
is  nothing  new  or  revolutionary  about  this,  except  that 


* Missionary  Problems  and  Policies  in  Japan,  1921. 


210  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

the  “workman  who  needeth  not  to  be  ashamed”  will 
study  with  all  his  might  the  latest  and  best  results  of 
pedagogy  and  psychology  in  order  that  he  may  by  all 
means  win  and  hold  and  establish  men  in  the  faith. 
This  involves  also  a  magnifying  of  work  among  chil¬ 
dren  and  youth,  who  alone  are  educable.  In  the  bright 
light  of  the  ideal,  how  pitiably  small  and  ineffective 
appear  the  Bible  schools  and  the  young  people’s  work 
and  the  Associations!  The  chief  essential  for  lifting 
them  all  nearer  to  the  ideal  is  Japanese  leadership, 
but  the  missionary  must  be  competent  to  do  his  bit 
as  a  pioneer,  a  demonstrator  and  a  trainer. 

2.  Nezv  emphases  and  methods  called  fo r 

Originality  in  missionary  methods  has  been  as 
strikingly  displayed  in  Japan  since  1900  as  in  any 
other  field :  witness  the  interracial  Omi  Mission,  the 
placing  of  English  teachers  in  government  schools, 
the  newspaper  evangelism,  the  student  hostels,  the 
work  of  Miss  Macdonald  among  criminals,  the 
Inland  Sea  Mission  of  Captain  Bickel,  and  the  inter¬ 
national  relations  ministry  of  men  like  Gilbert  Bowles. 
Who  can  predict  how  many  more  ingenious  and  valu¬ 
able  methods  and  emphases  will  be  invented  during 
the  next  decade?  We  cannot  do  better  than  dip  into 
the  story  of  some  of  these  successful  experiments. 

The  Silent  Messenger 

“Newspaper  Evangelism”  strikes  strangely  on  the 
ear.  Yet  the  strangest  thing  about  it  is  that  until 
a  missionary  in  Japan  hit  upon  the  plan,  twenty- 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  211 

five  years  ago,  no  one  in  the  mission  field  had  system¬ 
atically  utilized  paid  space  in  the  daily  press  to  present 
Christian  truth.  Like  most  innovations  it  has  had  to 
win  its  way  gradually,  but  it  is  now  recognized  to  be 
one  of  the  most  telling  and  economical  evangelistic 
methods,  especially  for  the  country  districts  where 
churches  are  few  and  the  people  are  conservative.  The 
plan  in  brief  is  to  select  the  best  papers  to  reach  any 
desired  population  and  then  to  publish  once  or  twice 
a  week  a  carefully  prepared  series  of  expositions  of 
Christian  truth,  or  passages  from  the  Bible  with 
simple  explanations,  and  to  offer  to  answer  inquiries 
and  supply  literature  and  New  Testaments.  The 
foreign  missionary  and  his  Japanese  associate  conduct 
a  central  office  where  a  varied  assortment  of  Christian 
literature  is  kept  on  hand,  and  where  callers  from  the 
outlying  towns  and  villages  are  welcomed  for  inter¬ 
views.  As  the  inquiries  are  followed  up,  man  after 
man  and  family  after  family  all  over  the  district 
become  interested  and  desire  to  spread  the  good  news 
to  their  neighbors.  As  soon  as  a  few  persons  in  a 
place  have  become  avowed  believers,  the  central  office 
sends  out  a  carefully  prepared  order  of  service  with  a 
mimeographed  sermon,  so  that  the  whole  service  can 
be  conducted  by  the  leader,  who  invites  his  neighbors 
in  to  what  oftentimes  develops,  as  in  New  Testament 
times,  into  the  “church  in  the  housed’  In  addition  to 
the  headquarters  office,  the  missionary  and  his  Japa¬ 
nese  colleagues  visit  as  many  of  the  outlying  inquirers 
as  possible,  and  gradually  form  the  nuclei  of  perma¬ 
nent  churches.  There  have  been  some  dramatic  con- 


212 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


versions  brought  about  by  this  long-distance  or  “corre¬ 
spondence”  evangelism.  One  instance  among  many 
may  be  quoted : 

A  man  in  jail  received  from  a  friend  a  present  of  some 
food  wrapped  up  in  half  a  page  of  an  old  newspaper.  Having 
nothing  to  read,  he  proceeded  to  study  it,  when  his  eye  caught 
an  article  entitled,  “Which  was  first — the  egg  or  the  hen?” 
It  was  one  sent  out  by  the  “Eternal  Life  Hail”  at  Oita,  and 
was  an  argument  for  believing  in  a  Creator. 

The  man's  interest  was  quickened,  and  he  got  in  touch  with 
the  missionary.  On  his  release,  he  made  his  way  at  once 
to  the  newspaper  office  and,  after  a  period  of  instruction  and 
probation,  was  baptized.  Today  he  is  an  elder  of  the  church 
to  which  he  belongs.* 

Newspaper  evangelism  has  now  been  so  completely 
tested  that  the  Federation  of  Missions,  not  only  has 
endorsed  it,  but  has  voted  to  establish  offices  in  Tokyo, 
Osaka,  and  other  large  cities,  so  as  to  utilize  the 
metropolitan  dailies  which  reach  hundreds  of  thou¬ 
sands  of  both  city  and  country  dwellers.  In  this  as 
in  other  literary  enterprises,  the  chief  part  can  most 
effectively  be  taken  by  Japanese,  but  there  is  a  large 
and  attractive  opening  also  for  foreigners  who  possess 
the  right  combination  of  gifts.  The  success  of  this 
plan  in  Japan  has  led  to  its  adoption  by  one  of  the 
missions  in  China. 

Among  Prisoners  and  Criminals 

It  is  always  embarrassing  to  call  attention  to  the 
work  of  persons  still  living,  but  in  the  case  of  those 
here  mentioned  I  do  not  fear  that  it  will  turn  their 
heads.  One  of  the  remarkable  workers  in  Japan 

*  The  East  and  the  West,  April,  1922,  p.  169. 


4 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  213 


today  is  Miss  Macdonald,  a  tiny  Canadian  lady  of 
Scotch  ancestry,  for  whom,  if  need  should  arise,  scores 
of  the  most  notorious  criminals  in  Japan  would  gladly 
give  their  lives.  She  was  sent  out  to  found  the  Young 
Women’s  Christian  Association,  and  after  ten  fruitful 
years  turned  over  the  responsibility  to  Miss  Michi 
Kawai  and  gave  her  attention  to  work  among  prisoners 
and  their  families.  This  ministry  had  literally  been 
thrust  upon  her  by  the  fact  that  a  member  of  her  young 
men’s  bible  class  had  been  sentenced  to  death  for 
murder,  and  she  went  frequently  to  prison  to  see  him. 
That  opened  the  way  to  a  constantly  widening  and 
inescapable  ministry  among  other  prisoners  and  their 
relatives,  and  gradually  among  prison  officials  and  the 
neglected  classes  who  constantly  swell  the  ranks  of 
crime.  A  dramatic  outgrowth  of  her  work  is  most 
vividly  presented  in  the  volume  entitled  A  Gentleman 
in  Prison ,  which  is  the  autobiography  of  one  Ishii, 
who  for  twenty  years  figured  in  police  annals  as  a 
murderer  and  a  defier  of  gods  and  men.  Dr.  John 
Kelman  has  compared  this  book  with  John  Bunyan’s 
story  for  its  moving  power  and  its  evidence  of  the 
undiminished  potency  of  the  gospel.  The  passage 
where  Ishii  tells  of  reading  the  New  Testament  given 
him  by  Miss  Macdonald  and  her  colleague,  Miss  West, 
and  of  the  breaking  open  of  his  double-barred  heart 
at  the  words  of  Jesus,  “Father,  forgive  them,  for 
they  know  not  what  they  do,”  is  among  the  most 
touching  in  all  biographical  literature. 

But  the  work  among  prisoners  has  opened  before 
Miss  Macdonald  such  glimpses  into  the  abyss  of  crime 


I 


214  CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 

and  vice  and  poverty  in  East  Tokyo  that  she  has  been 
impelled  to  found  a  neighborhood  house  there  which 
shall  form  a  center  for  all  the  phases  of  the  work, 
and  shall  become  a  training  ground  for  Japanese 
workers  and  a  clinic  in  the  application  of  divine  power 
to  human  life  at  its  worst.  Ten  eminent  Japanese 
Christians,  who  have  been  from  the  first  closely 
associated  with  this  work,  have  pledged  themselves  to 
secure  $75,000  for  the  neighborhood  house  and  have 
already  raised  part  of  it.  In  the  districts  where  the 
work  has  been  carried  on  for  five  years  a  group  of 
Japanese  associates  has  been  raised  up,  some  of  them 
brands  snatched  from  the  burning;  others,  men  and 
women  from  homes  of  privilege.  Even  this  brief 
account  of  the  work  will  add  further  evidence  of  the 
unexpected  new  opportunities  that  are  waiting  to  be 
developed  by  resourceful  missionaries. 

Fishing  for  Men  in  the  Inland  Sea 

Captain  Luke  Bickel,  the  Dr.  Grenfell  of  Japan, 
lias  already  been  alluded  to,  but  his  work  is  so  sug¬ 
gestive  that  it  deserves  fuller  mention.  Captain  Bickel 
was  every  inch  of  his  six-feet-two  a  sailor  and  a 
Christian.  A  friend  offered  the  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  funds  for  a  Gospel  Ship  to 
work  among  the  neglected  inhabitants  of  the  Inland 
Sea,  provided  the  Society  would  find  a  suitable 
skipper-missionary.  At  that  time  Captain  Bickel  was 
Executive  Director  of  the  London  Baptist  Publica¬ 
tion  Society,  but  when  the  call  came  to  this  new 
venture,  he  said  “yes,”  although  he  and  his  good 

« 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  215 


wife  knew  it  meant  endless  privation  and  difficulty. 
At  length  the  ship  was  built.  The  first  job  was  to 
find  a  Japanese  crew.  The  men  whom  he  finally  had 
to  engage  were  as  tough  and  untutored  a  gang  as 
even  Captain  Bickel  had  ever  seen.  But  the  Captain 
Considered  the  task  of  Christianizing  the  crew  just 
as  pressing  as  to  preach  among  the  million  and  a 
half  stubborn  and  suspicious  islanders  who  formed 
his  larger  parish.  In  the  Captain’s  biography  the 
most  thrilling  incident  is  the  almost  unbelievable  con¬ 
version  of  the  most  hardened  member  of  the  crew, 
Hirata.  We  quote  from  the  Captain’s  log.* 

Well,  Hirata  had  one  virtue  at  least,  he  was  openly, 
cheerfully  evil.  He  and  the  devil  went  watch  and  watch. 
He  gambled,  stole,  and  lied  by  preference.  He  drank  heavily 
and  loved  to  fight,  for  was  he  not  a  jiujitsu  expert  of  seven 
years’  training?  All  this  he  did  and  worse. 

Man  has  a  soul,  they  say.  We  tried  to  find  his,  tried  for 
two  years,  but  never  got  a  glimpse.  He  came  to  the  ship’s 
daily  worship  with  the  rest,  bowed  his  head  like  a  saint  and 
looked  out  of  his  eight-point  eyes  at  the  rest  of  the  crew 
with  a  wink  to  which  they  responded.  When  it  was  all  over, 
they  went  away  forward  and  laughed  at  the  fun.  Being  of 
sailor  build,  we  had  seen  a  craft  or  two  since  we  first  sailed 
deep  water,  but  for  straight  evil-doing  the  Mission  Ship 
outsailed  them  all.  Morally,  spiritually,  it  was  bedlam  with 
the  lid  off,  and  our  friend  was  the  man  who  held  the  lid. 

This  lasted  two  years  and  then  something  happened.  One 
of  the  men  fell  overboard  in  a  winter  gale  and  was  drowned. 
God  used  this  to  move  our  friend’s  heart.  He  began  to 
inquire,  but  how?  Must  he  learn  English?  No.  Would  he 
not  have  to  go  to  school  and  study  before  he  could  find  any 
help  from  Christianity?  So  little  impression  had  the  two 

*  Captain  Bickel  of  the  Inland  Sea.  C.  K.  Harrington.  Fleming 
H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York. 


I 


21 6 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


years  on  the  ship  made !  Ignorant  to  the  extent  of  not  being 
able  to  read  or  write  the  simple  Japanese  Kana,  or  syllable 
alphabet,  morally  crooked  in  all  his  ways,  was  there  any  hope 
of  his  being  changed.  In  deep  disappointment,  almost  with 
disgust,  we  answered  his  inquiries.  We  did  not  believe  him 
sincere  then  nor  did  we  later  on  when  he  professed  faith  in 
Christ. 

We  refused  baptism,  but  there  was  a  change,  even  we  could 
not  deny  it;  yes,  a  change  at  last,  slight  indeed,  but  growing 
in  force  continually  until  the  old  man  became  completely  new. 

The  upshot  of  it  all  was  that  Hirata  became  a  crude 
but  powerful  evangelist,  one  of  that  procession  of 
twice-born  men  which  sprang  up  along  Captain 
BickeT s  path.  The  work  so  well  started  by  Captain 
Bickel  has  gone  forward  since  his  death.  There  are 
several  other  groups  of  islands  waiting  for  men  of 
like  vision  to  sail  a  ship  among  them  bearing  the  Good 
News  of  peace  and  new  life. 

Peace-makers 

Christian  mediation  between  races  and  nations  is 
becoming  more  and  more  urgent  as  the  contacts  and 
sources  of  friction  between  the  East  and  West 
multiply.  In  this  realm  many  missionaries  in  Japan 
have  rendered  distinctive  service,  but  in  recent  years 
none  more  notably  than  a  modest  Quaker,  Mr.  Gilbert 
Bowles.  Mild-mannered  and  unassuming,  he  has  won 
the  confidence  of  fair-minded  Japanese  from  privy 
councilors  down,  and  in ,  quiet  ways  has  brought  to 
bear  the  ideals  of  Christ  upon  the  situations  which 
threatened  to  lead  to  open  rupture.  Other  Christian 
men  of  like  mind,  Japanese  and  missionaries  and 


CHRISTIAN  LEADERS  OF  THE  YOUNGER  GENERATION.  JIRO  HOSHIJIMA 

(upper  left),  member  of  parliament;  miss  michi  kawai  (upper 
right),  national  secretary  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  ;  REV.  SHOICHI 
imamura  (lower  left),  religious  education  director,  reinan 

ZAKA  CHURCH;  SHINATO  SHIGA  (LOWER  RIGHT),  EXECUTIVE  SECRE¬ 
TARY,  people’s  CLUB,  OSAKA 


I 


■H 


MM 


s.  saito  (upper  left),  national  secretary  of  the  Y.  M.  c.  a. ; 

SAKUZO  YOSHINO  (UPPER  RIGHT),  PROFESSOR  IN  TOKYO  IMPERIAL 

university;  isamu  kawakami  (lower  left),  secretary  inter¬ 
national  service  bureau;  rev.  z.  ono  (lower  right),  pastor 

AT  KOFU 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  217 

foreign  merchants,  have  worked  with  him  until  there 
have  arisen  such  powerful  agencies  as  the  Japanese 
League  of  Nations  Association  and  the  International 
Service  Bureau,  directed  by  a  Christian  graduate  of 
Waseda  and  Princeton,  Mr.  Isamu  Kawakami. 

An  unheralded  but  dynamic  development  of  this 
interracial  friendliness  has  been  the  gathering  to¬ 
gether  of  leading  Chinese  and  Japanese  Christians 
and  a  few  missionaries  from  each  of  the  two  countries 
tO!  talk  and  pray  together  confidentially.  Twice  they 
have  met,  once  in  China  and  once  in  Japan,  and  dis¬ 
cussed  with  utmost  freedom  the  points  of  irritation 
between  the  two  governments  and  peoples.  In  this 
and  other  ways,  these  modern  peace-makers  have 
affected  the  springs  of  action  which  statesmen  cannot 
touch,  and  have  proved  that  literally  nothing  human 
is  foreign  to  the  heart  of  Christ  and  His  representa¬ 
tives.  Lothrop  Stoddard  quotes  with  approval 
Madison  Grant’s  words,  “It  is  quite  another  (thing) 
for  the  white  man  to  share  his  blood  with  or  entrust 
his  ideals  to  brown,  yellow,  black,  or  red  men.”  (Italics 
are  Grant’s.)  Is  it  not  high  time  for  Christian  white 
men  to  give  the  lie  to  such  intolerant,  pagan  appeals 
to  race  arrogance  by  backing  up  without  reserve  the 
Christ-like  service  of  men  like  Bowles? 

While  there  will  doubtless  continue  to  be  need  for 
more  of  the  resourceful,  much-enduring,  evangelistic 
missionaries,  and  for  the  regular  educational  mis¬ 
sionaries,  the  strongest  demand  is  likely  to  be  for  men 
and  women  of  rounded  training,  but  of  superior  ability 
and  specialized  training  in  one  line.  How  many  of 

H-Jap 


2lS 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


them?  If  only  they  measure  up  fairly  closely  to  the 
specifications  already  given,  the  Japanese  churches  and 
the  broad-minded  public  will  welcome  a  good  many 
more.  The  number  of  such  candidates  available  in  all 
North  America  and  Great  Britain  is  so  very  limited 
that  there  is  no  danger  of  too  many  being  sent. 

III.  THE  CONCLUSION  OF  THE  WHOLE  MATTER 

The  issues  at  stake  in  the  Far  East  are  too  great 
for  the  man  in  the  street  to  grasp.  Japan  is  so  far 
away  and  the  United  States  and  Canada  so  mighty 
and  self-sufficient  that  he  may  think  it  far-fetched  to 
talk  about  Japan’s  future  determining  to  any  percep¬ 
tible  degree  the  destiny  of  North  America.  But  Japan 
is  the  vanguard  of  Asia,  and  if  Asia  falls  into  the  pit, 
Western  nations  can  no  more  help  being  dragged  in 
than  America  can  escape  the  down-draft  of  Europe’s 
present  debacle.  An  American  scientist  of  interna¬ 
tional  reputation  after  spending  half  of  1922  studying 
conditions  on  the  Continent  declared  that  European 
civilization  would  not  recover  for  two  generations  and 
that  Japan  and  China  were  bound  to  wield  a  corre¬ 
spondingly  larger  influence  on  the  thought  and  destiny 
of  both  East  and  West.  Americans  now  living  are 
likely  to  behold  them  become  as  potent  in  world  affairs 
as  England  and  America  have  been  for  the  past  hun¬ 
dred  years. 

Thank  God,  the  Japanese  people  today  are  plastic 
and  ready  to  be  recast.  From  nobles  to  navvies  they 
are  conscious  that  things  are  wrong  and  that  they 
need  new  power  to  put  them  right.  Consider  the 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  219 

appalling  dash  of  forces  amid  which  the  Japanese 
people  are  struggling  today — autocracy  and  demo- 
racy,  feudalism  and  industrialism,  family  authority 
and  individual  freedom,  superstitious  faiths  and  New 
Testament  revelation, — stout  hearts  may  well  quail 
and  weak  hearts  despair.  As  Baron  Kata,  chief  dele¬ 
gate  to  the  Washington  Conference,  was  returning 
to  Japan  he  dropped  this  pregnant  remark:  “We  did 
our  best  at  Washington  and  will  work  hard  to  live 
up  to  the  agreements,  but  we  need  the  help  of  the 
teachers  of  religion  to  supplement  what  we  did  there.’’’ 
Now  that  the  Baron  is  Premier  he  seems  to  be  making 
an  honest  fight  for  a  righteous  policy  toward  China, 
Siberia,  and  the  United  States,  and  for  greater  popu¬ 
lar  freedom  at  home.  But  he  and  other  leaders  of 
Japan  confess  that  the  one  thing  needful,  an  inward 
dynamic,  they  cannot  supply. 

If  the  evidence  arrayed  in  this  book  is  accepted  at 
face  value,  it  would  seem  to  indicate  that  Christ  has 
proved  to  be  the  desired  dynamic  in  Japanese  hearts, 
as  we  know  Him  to  be  in  our  own.  But  before  settling 
back  comfortably  on  anyone  else’s  ready-made  conclu¬ 
sions  either  on  this  point  or  on  the  whole  question 
of  the  place  and  power  of  Christ  and  the  Church  in 
Japan  today  and  tomorrow,  it  will  be  well  to  take  a 
birdseye  view  of  the  ground  we  have  traversed. 

Only  a  few  segments  of  the  entire  complex  situation 
in  Japan  today  have  been  covered  in  this  volume,  yet 
they  were  intended  to  be  the  most  significant  and 
representative  segments.  If  that  is  a  reasonable  as¬ 
sumption,  one  should  be  able  to  answer  with  some 


220 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


confidence  the  question,  What  are  the  main  conclusions 
to  which  the  evidence  points?  No  reader  or  study- 
group  should  accept  another  person’s  answer ;  but  tak¬ 
ing  the  privilege  of  an  author  and  assuming  the  atti¬ 
tude  of  a  judge,  I  would,  for  myself  at  least,  formulate 
some  of  the  conclusions  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

The  Japanese  people  are  likely  to  exert  a  mighty 
influence  upon  the  peoples  of  Asia  and  also  upon  the 
rest  of  the  world.  For  a  generation  to  come  their 
influence  in  Asia  may  entitle  them  to  be  called  “the 
rudder  of  the  Orient.'’ 

The  phenomenal  expansion  of  industry  and  the  land¬ 
slide  of  population  into  the  cities,  coupled  with  uni¬ 
versal  education,  the  emergence  of  the  common  people, 
and  the  recognition  of  women’s  rights  have  powerfully 
affected  the  character  and  life  of  the  people.  Ven¬ 
erable  customs  and  ethical  standards  have  lost  their 
authority.  The  sway  of  the  old  faiths  has  waned  as 
scientific  education  has  advanced.  Even  the  military 
career,  typified  by  the  sword  (“soul  of  the  samurai”), 
has  lost  its  prestige,  discredited  by  the  excesses  of 
the  militarists  in  all  lands  since  the  World  War  and 
undermined  by  the  cumulative  effect  of  Christian 
teaching.  The  advance  of  liberalism  and  popular 
rights  and  the  decline  of  repressive  upper-class  domi¬ 
nation  have  become  irresistible.  But  unless  the  spirit 
and  standards  of  Jesus  become  steadily  more  potent 
in  Japanese  society,  all  these  emancipating  tendencies 
will  lead  toward  a  refined  but  selfish  materialism 
and  toward  exchange  of  upper-class  for  lower-class 
domination. 


CHALLENGE  OF  TODAY  AND  TOMORROW  221 


The  conflict  between  the  old  family  authority  and 
the  new  personal  liberty  presses  hard  on  the  younger 
generation.  Many  of  them  have  run  the  gamut  of 
naturalism,  agnosticism,  and  cynicism,  and  when  they 
come  to  themselves,  they  yearn  for  some  sure  word 
of  life.  Out  of  the  depths  of  their  bewilderment  and 
need,  shallow  men  and  women  are  seizing  upon  strange 
travesties  of  religion,  while  the  more  serious-minded 
are  taking  refuge  in  the  more  spiritual  elements  of 
Buddhism  and  Shinto;  and  still  other  earnest  souls, 
who  know  little  about  Christ,  have  become  enamored 
of  the  character  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  by  way 
of  his  footsteps  are  groping  their  way  toward  the 
light  of  Christ  Himself. 

Were  the  Master  to  appear  in  Japan  today,  he  would 
doubtless  recognize  many  more  friends  and  allies 
than  our  dull  eyes  can  descry.  We  depend  too  much 
upon  labels  and  definitions,  while  he  “looketh  on  the 
heart.’ ’  But  1  fully  believe  that  he  would  hail  the 
folk  in  Japan  who  bear  his  name, — the  Church  con¬ 
ceived  most  broadly  and  in  all  its  branches  and  auxil¬ 
iaries — despite  their  distorted  representation  of  him, 
as  the  drivinr  center  of  the  forces  that  are  to  establish 
his  Kingdom  among  the  Japanese  people.  Their  rein¬ 
forcement  and  upbuilding,  therefore,  is  a  para¬ 
mount  duty. 

After  his  last  visit  to  Japan  Dr.  Robert  E.  Speer 
wrote :  “The  present  is  the  day  of  all  days  for 
the  churches  at  home  to  support  these  churches 
and  missions  in  Japan  by  enabling  them  to  put 
forth  the  maximum  of  direct  evangelistic  effort 


222 


CREATIVE  FORCES  IN  JAPAN 


and  to  use  to  the  limit  every  opportunity  of  press 
and  school.”* 

What  poignant  grief  must  Christ  feel  over  the  dis¬ 
loyalty  and  niggardliness  and  timidity  of  many  of 
his  followers  in  North  America  and  Great  Britain,  as 
they  sit  supine  before  Japan’s  urgent  need!  What 
unsuspected  powers  and  graces  may  He  call  forth  in 
the  yet  unevangelized  Japanese  people!  But  to  many 
of  them  His  liberating  touch  will  only  go  as  we  stand 
by  the  meager  Christian  forces  now  in  Japan. 

Three  years  ago  at  the  World’s  Sunday  School 
Convention  in  Tokyo  occurred  a  scene  full  of  sym¬ 
bolic  meaning.  It  vividly  represented  the  forces  which 
are  playing  a  leading  part  in  re-creating  Japan.  A 
great  chorus  of  young  Japanese  Christians,  reinforced 
by  a  hundred  missionaries,  made  the  galleries  of  the 
Imperial  Theater  resound  to  the  thrilling  harmonies 
of  the  ‘‘Hallelujah  Chorus.”  All  distinctions  of 
Orient  and  Occident,  of  foreigner  and  Japanese,  were 
fused  into  one  mighty  ensemble.  In  the  heart  of  the 
capital,  within  sight  of  the  Imperial  Palace,  rang  forth 
the  prophetic  words:  “The  Lord  God  Omnipotent 
reigneth!  The  Kingdoms  of  this  world  are  become 
the  Kingdom  of  Our  Lord  and  of  His  Christ.  And 
He  shall  reign  forever  and  ever!” 

*  Report  on  India  and  Persia,  192 2,  p.  15. 


APPENDIX  I 


Supplemental  Material  and  Quotations 

Chapter  I 

Illumin  a  tin g  Q  uo  tatio  ns 

The  Japanese,  like  (yourselves,  are  human  beings — subject  to 
the  wants  and  frailties  of  our  common  humanity — loving  and 
courting  love — aspiring  and  falling — sinning  and  being  sinned 
against — but  knit  together  by  a  few  underlying  principles  of 
far-reaching  worth,  among  which  are  loyalty,  the  capacity  for 
self-sacrifice,  and  the  enthronement  of  knightly  honor  as  the 
supreme  rule  of  life. — Viscount  Kikujiro  Ishii,  Japan  Review, 
Nov.,  1919,  pp.  9,  10. 

Their  moral  sense  is  low,  they  are  not  industrious,  their  in¬ 
telligence  is  imitative  but  not  initiative,  while  their  ambition  is 
blended  with  an  unfortunate  aggressiveness  and  a  deplorable 
sensitiveness. — Andrew  M.  Pooley,  Japan  at  the  Cross  Roads, 
p.  20. 

The  net  judgment  with  which  we  returned  to  America,  after 
three  visits  during  seven  months,  is  a  judgment  of  increased 
respect  for  Japan  and  what  she  has  achieved,  and  a  deepened 
confidence  in  the  worthy  and  better  elements  of  Japanese  life 
and  character. — Robert  E.  Speer,  Missionary  Review  of  the 
World,  July,  1916,  p.  517. 

For  seventeen  years,  I  have  been  associating  intimately  with 
Japanese  of  literally  every  class,  and  especially  with  those  in 
rural  parts.  I  have  consistently  treated  them  as  if  their  psy¬ 
chology  were  the  same  as  that  of  other  brother  men,  and  those 
who  have  failed  to  respond  to  such  an  approach  with  like  atti¬ 
tude  have  been  the  exceptions.  Precisely  what  Mr.  Marcosson 
proclaims  impossible — for  a  foreigner  to  slap  a  Japanese  on  the 
shoulder  and  talk  to  him  as  he  would  to  an  Occidental  crony — 
I  have  never  found  to  be  at  all  resented.  In  fact  the  response 
has  been  in  kind. — William  Merrell  Vories,  The  Omi  Mustard 
Seed,  Dec.  1922,  p.  160. 

I  had  read  in  books  of  learned  “globe-trotters”  that  the 
Japanese  were  a  stoical  race,  never  displaying  their  feelings  in 
public.  Imagine  my  surprise,  then,  at  witnessing  a  whole  room- 

223 


224 


APPENDIX  I 


ful  of  young  men,  at  the  very  age  when  one  is  least  willing  to 
show  emotion,  so  deeply  moved  by  these  simple  incidents  and 
parables  from  the  life  of  Christ,  that  tears  and  even  audible 
sobs  were  not  infrequent. — W.  M.  Vories,  A  Mustard  Seed  in 
Japan,  p.  13. 

Chapter  II 

Illuminating  Quotations 

The  governments  of  Europe  she  saw  organized  on  a  basis  of 
force  rather  than  of  right  .  .  .  This  discovery  brought  a  horrible 
chill  to  every  thoughtful  Japanese.  Not  her  intrinsic  civilization, 
nor  her  attainments  in  appreciating  the  moral,  intellectual,  and 
political  achievements  of  the  most  advanced  nations  of  the  West, 
would  of  themselves  alone  protect  her  from  the  engulfing  swirl 
of  European  militaristic  domination.  Only  by  her  own  military 
might  could  she  hope  to  confront  their  military  might  and  main¬ 
tain  her  independent  life.  Even  most  of  those  who  through  the 
70’s  or  8o’s  had  been  liberal  leaders,  since  1890  had  at  least 
acquiesced  in  the  rise  of  the  new  militarism  of  Japan.  They  said 
that  “preparedness”  was  essential  to  safety  in  such  a  world  as 
Europe  had  created. — Tasuku  Harada,  Ex-President  of  Doshisha 
University,  Japan  Review,  February,  1920,  p.  105. 

The  Prussian  monarchy  is  a  result  of  fierce  racial  struggles. 
Without  the  wars  of  aggrandizement  Prussia  could  never  have 
attained  its  unity  and  expansion.  On  the  other  side,  Japan  at¬ 
tained  her  unity  and  solidarity  in  the  peaceful  isolation  of  an 
insular  nation  of  which  its  time-honored  monarchy  is  the  emblem. 
This  is  not  a  mere  geographical  difference,  but  it  has  created  a 
marked  difference  in  the  temperament  of  the  two  peoples,  and 
in  the  relationship  between  the  rulers  and  the  ruled. — Profes¬ 
sor  Masaharu  Anesaki,  What  Japan  Thinks,  p.  151. 

Sober-minded  Japanese,  however,  will  tell  you  today  that  the 
moment  the  United  States  entered  the  World  War  the  jingo 
bubble  burst.  The  spectacle  of  the  stupendous  economic  machine 
that  we  reared  so  swiftly  to  bulwark  the  men  at  the  front,  to¬ 
gether  with  a  corresponding  realization  that  such  an  effort  was 
absolutely  beyond  the  resources  of  Japan,  did  the  business  .  .  . 
Although  possibly  a  sacrilege  to  Japanese  reactionaries,  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  what  might  be  called  a  commercial  Genro  (Elder 


APPENDIX  1 


225 


Statesmen)  will  succeed  that  other  and  well-nigh  extinct  politi¬ 
cal  Genro  which  ruled  the  country  for  years. — Isaac  F.  Marcos- 
son,  Saturday  Evening  Post,  June  24,  1922,  pp.  89,  90. 

Whatever  develops  in  China,  one  thing  seems  certain,  the 
likelihood  of  international  war  in  the  Orient  has  been  removed 
[by  the  Washington  Conference]  for  at  least  ten  years,  and  by 
that  time  peace  may  have  become  a  habit. — Isaac  F.  Marcosson, 
Saturday  Evening  Post,  June  24,  19 22,  p.  97. 

Race  is  a  fetish  with  the  Japanese.  Moreover,  it  is  a  valuable 
asset.  The  whole  immigration  problem  in  connection  with 
America  is  an  instrument — “ a  potential  weapon  in  her  political 
arsenal,”  as  it  has  been  so  well  termed.  .  .  Whenever  the 
Elder  Statesmen,  particularly  Prince  Yamagata,  wanted  in¬ 
creased  military  appropriations,  it  was  only  necessary  to  ex¬ 
pose  the  issue  of  race  discrimination  against  the  Japanese  to 
get  them  over.  .  .  Any  foreigner  may  become  a  Japanese  sub¬ 
ject  if  he  has  been  domiciled  in  the  country  for  at  least  five 
years  continuously;  if  he  is  twenty  years  of  age;  if  he  possesses 
property  or  the  means  to  support  himself;  if  he  has  no  nation¬ 
ality,  as  the  technical  phrase  goes,  or  is  willing  to  lose  the  one 
he  has.  When  he  becomes  a  subject  of  the  Mikado  by  marry¬ 
ing  a  Japanese  woman  on  condition  of  being  adopted  into  her 
family  and  assuming  the  family  name  of  the  wife,  only  one 
year’s  residence  is  required. — Isaac  F.  Marcosson,  Saturday 
Evening  Post ,  Sept.  30,  1922,  pp.  28,  30. 

Even  Christianity  has  abruptly  stopped  and  struck  its  standard 
before  the  racial  wall,  and  has  no  courage  to  advance.  A 
Western  nation  may  declare  a  Monroe  Doctrine,  but  is  re¬ 
luctant  to  accord  an  Asiatic  nation  a  similar  privilege.  The 
West  expects  the  East  to  open  its  doors  to  the  exploitation  of 
the  white  race,  but  reserves  the  right  to  slam  its  own  doors  in 
the  faces  of  Orientals. — K.  K.  Kawakami,  Japan  in  World 
Politics,  pp.  10-12. 

The  military  party  in  Japan  is  at  present  in  control,  it  can 
act  without  accountability  to  parliament  or  cabinet;  it  can  over¬ 
ride  the  decisions  of  the  civil  government  or  circumvent  them 
by  duplicity;  it  can  send  soldiers  where  it  will  and  mold  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  Empire  beyond  the  power  of  any  other 
party  to  prevent ;  and  it  does  all  these  things  ruthlessly. 

If  that  were  the  real  and  only  Japan,  what  hope  would  there 


2  26 


APPENDIX  I 


be  for  peace?  But  I  come  back  with  another  Japan  as  the 
center  of  my  hope.  This  new  Japan  is  pictured  in  a  Buddhist 
business  man  telling  me  with  deep  emotion  of  the  fact  that  of 
all  the  boys  who  wish  a  high  school  education  only  one  in  three 
can  have  one  because  there  are  not  schools  enough.  ‘‘See,”  he 
said,  “the  millions  we  spend  on  armaments !  A  great  cry  goes 
out  of  the  heart  of  Japan,  ‘Have  done  with  these  armies  and 
navies  and  give  us  schools !’  ” 

In  the  midst  of  a  conversation  with  a  group  of  the  Empire’s 
leaders,  one  of  them,  pointing  out  the  window,  said,  “Do  you 
see  that  red  building  there?  That  is  the  Department  of  Justice. 
And  that  square  building  beyond  is  the  headquarters  of  our 
[Army]  General  Staff,  and  that  is  our  great  enemy.”  So 
President  Bbina,  that  venerable  leader  of  Christian  Japan,  put 
it :  “Like  a  chick  within  the  shell,  struggling  to  be  born,  young 
liberal  Japan  is  growing  up  inside  the  strong,  encrusted  tradi¬ 
tions  of  her  militaristic  state,  and  she  wants  help  from  without 
as  well  as  power  from  within  to  burst  through.” 

See,  then,  where  the  real  alignment  is!  It  is  not  between 
japan  as  a  whole  and  America  as  a  whole.  It  is  between  the 
forward-looking,  liberal,  humane-spirited  people  of  America 
and  Japan  together  on  the  one  side  and  the  militaristic  and 
reactionary  cliques  in  both  countries  on  the  other.  When  I 
talk  with  a  hard-hearted,  visionless,  militaristic  American,  I  will 
not  acknowledge  him  a  member  of  my  spiritual  country.  When 
I  talk  with  a  liberal,  forward-looking,  Christian-minded  Japanese, 
I  know  I  have  met  a  citizen  of  my  fatherland. — Harry  Emer¬ 
son  Fosdick,  “Do  We  Want  War  in  the  Far  East?”  Sermon 
published  Oct.,  1921. 

The  only  hope  for  more  assistance  to  education  from  the 
national  treasury  is  to  economize  in  armaments.  Therefore, 
the  very  teachers  who  have  been  filling  their  pupils  with  im¬ 
perialistic  ideas  are  now  ready  to  demand  disarmament. 

Militarists  agree  that  though  navies  are  being  reduced,  the 
same  does  not  apply  to  armies.  They  say  that  the  nations  of 
the  world  are  teaching  military  science  in  their  colleges,  and 
in  America  the  flag  is  used  everywhere  for  what  is  called 
“Americanization,”  but  what  they  believe  to  be  narrow  nationalism. 
They  insist  that  the  conditions  in  Siberia  and  China  present 
a  continual  danger  to  Japan. 


APPENDIX  I 


227 


The  liberal-minded  people  of  Japan  are  sometimes  hindered 
by  the  narrow  nationalism  of  other  peoples,  yet  they  are  also 
stimulated  by  it.  Even  the  most  narrow  nationalists  of  Japan 
are  anxious  to  keep  abreast  of  other  nations  and  will  follow 
whatever  they  believe  to  be  the  world  tendency,  whether  it  be 
imperialism,  or  justice  and  good-will.  If  another  Washington 
Conference  can  decide  upon  reduction  of  the  army,  there  is 
good  reason  for  believing  that  Japan  will  be  glad  to  follow.— 
Isamu  Kawakami,  “International  Morality  and  Japanese  Na¬ 
tionalism,”  pamphlet  published  Nov.,  ig22. 

These  are  spacious  days  for  all  of  us,  days  when  we  are 
seeing  realized  before  our  eyes  things  that  most  of  us  had 
not  the  faith  to  expect  inside  the  next  twenty  years.  Those  of 
you  who  have  worked  and  prayed  for  the  Washington  Con¬ 
ference  did  not  pin  your  faith  to  a  fancy.  That  Conference 
has  meant  worlds  to  the  progress  of  the  liberal  movement  in 
Japan. — A  Canadian  Resident  in  Japan,  Extract  from  a  letter 
of  January  2,  1923. 

We  have  observed  the  apparent  determination  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  to  follow  the  path  of  democratic  Britain  with  an  open  safety 
valve  of  free  speech  rather  than  the  discredited  methods  of 
militaristic  Russia  with  its  resultant  volcanic  upheaval  of  revolu¬ 
tion.  We  have  seen  professors,  writers,  and  leaders  of  the 
Diet  who  are  demanding  immediate  universal  manhood  suffrage, 
a  cabinet  and  Diet  responsible  only  to  the  people,  the  abolition 
of  militarism  and  of  Dual  government,  the  reduction  of  the 
army,  the  policy  of  the  open  door  in  China,  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Japanese  troops  from  all  disputed  areas,  justice  for  labor, 
rights  for  the  new  woman,  and  numerous  other  reforms. — 
Sherwood  Eddy,  Letter  of  September,  1922. 

In  the  mission  school,  and  in  their  experiments  with  ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  organizations  the  Christians  acquire  self-confidence.  .  .  The 
Christian  missions  of  Asia  are  cradles  of  patriotism.  .  . 

The  missionary  has  been  the  carrier  of  the  democratic  ideal 
to  the  four  corners  of  the  earth.  .  .  When  the  missionary 
makes  a  convert,  he  makes  a  radical. — Tyler  Dennett,  The 
Democratic  Movement  in  Asia,  pp.  189,  242-3. 


228 


APPENDIX  I 


Chapter  III 
Supplemental  Text 

The  following  is  Mr.  Kagawa’s  message  dictated  in  English  to 
Dr.  Myers  at  Kobe,  Oct.  6,  1922.  Except  for  recasting  an  awk¬ 
ward  sentence  here  and  there,  Dr.  Myers  says  that  these  are  Mr. 
Kagawa’s  very  words : 

“My  chief  work  is  the  building  and  the  re-building  of  the  Hu¬ 
man  Temple.  It  is  the  Carpenter  Jesus  alone  who  is  able  to  do 
this  work.  I  am  helper  and  servant  to  Him.  The  material  for 
this  building  is  Life,  Labor,  and  Liberty. 

Hitherto,  religious  teachers  have  confined  their  efforts  too  much 
to  doctrine  and  emotion,  and  men  of  the  world  have  emphasized 
matter  and  money.  They  must  all  learn  to  worship  God  through 
life,  not  merely  through  doctrine  or  emotion  or  matter  or  money. 
I  am  strongly  opposed  to  the  Marxian  materialistic  conception 
of  history.  Economics  and  religion  are  not  separate  but  one. 
To  live  a  life,  and  to  live  up  to  life  is  economics  and  it  is  religion. 
Without  God  there  is  no  economics  and  there  is  no  life,  for  God 
is  Life  Eternal. 

The  action  of  life  is  Labor;  therefore  man  must  enjoy  labor. 
I  am  opposed  to  the  system  which  makes  a  mere  “human  ma¬ 
chine”  of  labor  and  laborers.  Labor  is  not  a  commodity  to  be 
bought  and  sold,  it  is  a  gift  of  God  to  be  respected  and  honored. 
But  labor  without  God  is  useless  effort,  a  tread-mill  that  brings 
man  to  no  goal.  Labor  expended,  for  instance,  at  a  brewery  or 
in  making  munitions  at  the  arsenal,  is  destructive,  and  does  not 
accord  with  God’s  purpose  of  Life  for  mankind.  Unemployment 
is  not  in  accord  with  God’s  will,  for  we  must  get  a  realization  of 
life  through  labor.  The  exploitation  of  labor  for  selfish  purposes 
is  one  of  the  worst  of  evils.  Paul  says,  “If  any  will  not  work, 
neither  let  him  eat.” 

The  third  material  in  the  Human  Temple  is  Liberty.  This  does 
not  mean  equality.  God  has  given  to  every  man  a  different  de¬ 
gree  of  ability.  If  a  man  is  allowed  to  realize  and  employ  all  the 
powers  that  God  has  given  him,  that  is  liberty.  No  man  has  a 
right  to  hinder  this  liberty  in  any  other  man.  The  principle  of 
equality  lies  in  the  fact  that  God  has  given  life  equally  to  all. 
Men  must  have  liberty  to  be  educated,  liberty  to  marry,  liberty 


APPENDIX  I 


229 

to  vote,  liberty  to  organize,  liberty  to  migrate,  liberty  to  think 
and  speak,  liberty  to  worship. 

Just  now.  Life,  Labor,  and  Liberty  are  all  three  being  de¬ 
stroyed.  Class  hatred  and  revolution  are  being  emphasized  from 
the  side  of  the  oppressed.  The  leaders  are  preaching  revolution 
with  a  promise  of  bread.  The  real  demand  and  need  are  not  for 
bread  alone,  but  for  Life,  Labor,  and  Liberty.  Violence  and 
revolution  will  never  bring  men  these  three.  Souls  must  be 
redeemed  first.  The  wounds  have  pierced  too  deeply  into  the 
souls  of  men.  Without  regeneration  and  rejuvenation  of  the 
souls  of  men  from  within,  men  can  never  see  the  Kingdom  of 
God.  We  cannot  redeem  ourselves;  we  must  believe  in  the  power 
of  God  to  redeem.  The  work  of  Christ  is  to  supply  our  defi¬ 
ciency,  and  the  mission  of  the  followers  of  Christ  is  to  go  out  in 
the  power  of  the  Spirit  of  God  to  save  the  suffering,  armed,  not 
with  a  sword,  but  with  love.  Christians  must  glorify  God  in  the 
flesh  as  Christ  glorified  God  in  the  flesh.  This  is  the  building  of 
the  Human  Temple  and  the  Gospel  of  the  Incarnation.  To  live 
a  Life  is  a  fine  art,  it,  is  to  glorify  God  in  our  bodies.  This  is 
where  art  and  religion  meet.  Economics  is  a  part  of  art ;  it  is 
the  art  of  making  life  enjoyable  and  happy.  Art  without  God  is 
nothing.  To  live  a  religious  life,  a  man  cannot  withdraw  to  some 
desert  cave  or  mountain  temple.  lie  must  bear  his  cross  in  the 
flesh  and  live  a  life  of  service  among  men.  That  is  the  art  of  art, 
the  economics  of  economics,  and  the  religion  of  religion.  That  is 
the  Gospel  of  Christ.” — Signed  Toyohiko  Kagawa. 

Illuminating  Quotations 

Sooner  or  later  Japan  must  undergo  an  industrial  revolution. 
It  is  the  only  agency  that  can  clear  up  the  situation.  Wages  are 
still  too  low  and  most  of  the  profits  now  go  to  the  rich  families, 
who  pay  a  trifling  income  tax.  The  worker  does  not  get  his  just 
share  and  he  proposes  to  get  it.  The  Japanese  worker  has  been 
a  long-suffering  individual  and  has  never  asserted  his  rights, 
but  now  he  is  beginning  to  put  fear  into  the  heart  of  the 
employer. 

‘‘Will  Japanese  labor  ever  go  Bolshevik?”  I  asked. 

“It  is  not  impossible,”  he  answered;  “but  we  Japanese  would 
never  go  to  an  extreme  that  would  menace  the  security  of  our 


230 


APPENDIX  I 


Emperor.  His  place  must  always  be  secure.  I  believe  in  the 
doctrines  of  Karl  Marx,  and  many  of  my  colleagues  think 
the  same  way.  .  .  — B.  Suzuki.  From  an  article  by  Isaac 
Marcosson,  published  in  Saturday  Evening  Poet,  Aug.  12,  1922, 
page  86. 

In  Osaka  there  are  50,000  people  living  and  working  on  the 
cargo-boats  which  ply  up  and  down  the  rivers  and  canals.  In 
the  congested  districts  there  are  some  50,000  Eta.  In  the  mint, 
the  arsenal,  and  iron  works  of  the  city  about  50,000  people  are 
employed.  There  is  no  Christian  worker  set  apart  for  any  of 
these.  .  .  .  There  is  an  increasing  demand  for  Christians  to  act 
as  matrons  and  teachers  and  superintendents  in  factories  and 
municipal  lodging  houses,  nurseries,  etc.,  for  there  is  a  growing 
feeling  that  unless  love  is  at  the  center,  the  whole  scheme  falls 
to  the  ground. — L.  L.  Shaw,  Japan  in  Transition,  pp.  99,  100,  101. 


Chapter  IV 

Illuminating  Q notations 

To  the  alternative  Christianity  or  materialism  we  must  add  a 
third  term,  modernized  and  Christianized  Buddhism  .  .  .  Patriot¬ 
ism  is  not,  as  is  sometimes  said,  the  only  religion  of  the  Japanese, 
but  no  religion  which  does  not  give  satisfaction  to  their  patriotic 
feeling  will  be  likely  to  win  their  allegiance.  .  .  .  We  must  make 
plain  the  capacity  of  Chritianity  to  be  a  New  Testament,  not  only 
to  Hebraism  and  to  Greek  Philosophy,  but  also  to  Buddhism, 
Shintoism,  and  Confucianism.  We  must  recognize  that  God  in 
time  past  spoke  at  sundry  times  and  in  divers  manners  to  the 
Oriental  as  well  as  to  the  Hebrew  and  to  the  Greek.  Should  we 
not  also  expect  that  the.  fullness  of  the  Godhead  which  dwells  in 
Christ  cannot  be  perfectly  revealed  until  He  has  had  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  to  bring  to  its  consummation  those  aspects  of  the  truth 

that  were  entrusted  to  the  prophets  of  the  East? . 

In  1882  Mr.  Fukuzawa,  the  eminent  editor  and  educator,  wrote: 
“That  Christianity  is  a  danger  to  our  national  power  is  evident. 
Unless  Buddhism  is  assisted  by  the  influence  of  the  upper  classes 
nothing  can  obstruct  the  intrusion  of  Christianity.  Buddhist 
priests  are  immoral  and  shameless,  and  without  energy  of 
spirit.  It  is  very  unsafe  to  trust  this  weighty  cause  to  them 


APPENDIX  I 


231 


alone.  We  do  not  believe  in  Buddhism  nor  do  we  respect  the 
priest.  Our  concern  is  for  the  national  power,  in  the  conserva¬ 
tion  of  which  that  religion  must  be  utilized.” — Bishop  H.  St. 
George  Tucker,  Missionary  Problems  and  Policies ,  pp.  10,  1 1, 
13,  14?  19- 

The  doctrine  of  transmigration  naturally  creates  superstition, 
making  it  possible  to  worship  all  manner  of  living  creatures, 
real  and  imaginary.  .  .  The  Neo-Platonist  explained  Egyptian 
animal  worship  by  the  doctrine  of  transmigration.  In  the  same 
way  the  Buddhist  custom  of  holding  mass  for  animals  can  be 
accounted  for.  For  instance,  the  Young  Men’s  Buddhist  As¬ 
sociation  in  Kyusiu  recently  held  memorial  services  for  34,000 
frogs,  7,000  rats,  1,000  hares,  500  dogs,  500  cats,  500  hens,  and 
500  doves  dissected  in  the  study  of  anatomy  in  Kyusiu  Uni¬ 
versity. — Robert  C.  Armstrong,  Christian  Movement  in  Japan , 
1922,  p.  94. 

In  September,  1911,  the  Department  of  Education  issued  an 
order  which  reads:  "The  sentiment  of  reverence  ( keishin )  is 
correlative  with  the  feeling  of  respect  for  ancestors  and  is  most 
important  in  establishing  the  foundations  of  national  morality. 
Accordingly,  on  the  occasion  of  the  festivals  of  the  local  shrines 
of  the  districts  .  .  .  the  teachers  must  conduct  the  children  to 
the  shrines  and  give  expression  to  the  true  spirit  of  reverence.”— 
D.  C.  Holtom,  Christian  Movement  in  Japan ,  1922,  p.  123. 

Christianity  has  brought  a  widening  of  ideas,  the  feelings  of 
internationalism  and  brotherhood.  Commerce  is  self-seeking. 
Christianity  has  been  unselfish.  .  .  The  Buddhism  in  Japan 
is  far  better  and  purer  than  that  in  India.  We  take  the  best, 
and  we  shall  be  glad  to  take  the  best  out  of  Christianity.— 
Baron  Sakatani,  The  Democratic  Movement  in  Asia,  p.  55. 

Viscount  Shibusawa  said  to  Dr.  L.  L.  Wirt  of  the  Near  East 
Relief:  "The  Buddhists  of  Japan  will  adopt  a  thousand  orphans 
from  your  Holy  Land,  only,  please  don’t  call  us  ’heathen’  any 
more.”  . . 

As  a  religion  of  power,  Buddhism  cannot  successfully  corn 
pete  with  Christianity,  when  both  are  confronted  equally  with 
the  problems  of  a  modern  world.  But  time  is  required  to  prove 
this  to  be  true. — William  C.  Sturgis,  Report  to  Department  of 
Missions,  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  August,  1921. 

We  have  seen  the  great  audiences  of  students  and  young 


232 


APPENDIX  I 


men  in  Tokyo,  Osaka,  Kobe,  and  Moji  listening,  no  longer  with 
a  blind  exclusive  patriotism,  but  with  a  new  interest  in  interna¬ 
tional,  racial,  and  industrial  problems,  and  with  a  new  heart 
hunger  for  vital  religion.  Many  have  turned  from  the  material¬ 
ism  and  agnosticism  of  the  last  decade  and  are  seeking  with 
new  eagerness  for  the  truth  which  alone  can  satisfy.  Never 
have  I  seen  such  an  encouraging  situation  in  Japan  nor  such 
an  opportunity  for  the  forces  of  vital  religion. — Sherwood  Eddy. 
Letter  of  September,  1922. 

K  Christianity  has  already  spread  its  roots  deep  in  Japanese  soil; 
it  has  become  a  Japanese  religion,  in  the  same  sense  that  Buddh¬ 
ism  became  a  Japanese  religion  centuries  ago.  It  is  notable 
also  that  independent  Japanese  Christianity  is  really  independent, 
receiving  no  foreign  assistance. — Kanzo  Uchimura,  What  Japan 
Thinks,  p.  213. 

The  truth,  it  seems  to  us,  is  that  Buddhism,  which  is  too  often 
represented  to  be  dying,  is  really  reviving,  and  thus  presents  an 
almost  insurmountable  obstacle  in  the  path  of  Christian  propa¬ 
ganda. — M.  Zumoto,  What  Japan  Thinks,  pp.  210-11. 

Abstract  talk  about  the  Christian  life  was  largely  uncotnpre- 
hended  through  lack  of  concrete  examples.  I  could  not  point  to 
a  single  member  of  the  faculty  as  an  illustration  fit  for  emulation. 
I  could  not  find  a  priest  in  the  town — although  there  were  some 
sixteen  temples  and  shrines  of  Buddhism  and  Shintoism  in  our 
midst — who  was  a  tit  example  for  young  men. — W.  M.  Vories, 
A  Mustard  Seed  in  Japan,  p.  15. 


Chapter  V 

Christian  Strength  in  the  Japanese  Empire  in  1921 


Church  membership  (Communicants)  : 


Protestant 

(Including 

Roman 

Eastern 

Anglican) 

Catholic 

Orthodox 

Japan  proper  . 

120,017 

75,983 

37,104 

Korea 

.  91,818 

Formosa 

7,809 

Sunday  School  Enrolment  (Japan  proper — Protestant) — 170,169 


APPENDIX  I 


233 


Japanese  Workers: 

Men 

Women 

Evangelistic . 

601 

Educational . 

967 

Medical . 

•  •  37 

67 

Literary . 

•  •  5 

9 

Others . 

75 

2,724 

L7I9 

Missionaries : 

Evangelistic  - . 

218 

Educational  . 

.  .  98 

182 

Medical  ....... 

4 

Literary . 

7 

Others . 

68 

Wives . 

244 

394 

723 

Christian  Schools’  Enrolment : 

Kindergarten . 

•  a  9  ®  e 

9,910 

Day  Nurseries . 

«€»•«« 

39 

Primary  Schools  .... 

•  O  •  •  • 

2,946 

Sunday  Schools  .... 

.  170,169 

English  Schools  .... 

4,584 

Middle  Schools  .... 

9T5I 

Girls’  Schools . 

11,322 

Higher  Department  of  Schools 

3,045 

Normal  Department  of  Schools 

90 

Theological  Schools 

•  •  •  •  • 

667 

Industrial  Schools  .  .  . 

1,222 

2I3J45 

Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  membership:  22,434. 
Young  Women’s  Christian  Association  membership:  8,000. 


Some  Facts  regarding  the  Larger  Churches 

Notwithstanding  the  serious  limitations  under  which  they 
have  struggled,  the  self-governing  denominations  have  taken 
long  strides  forward. 


234 


APPENDIX  I 


The  Kumiai  (Congregational)  Churches  and  the  American 

Board 

The  Kumiai  Churches  were  the  first  to  attain  their  independence 
and  form  a  strong  national  body.  Their  growth  is  indicated 
by  these  figures : 

Number  of  Annual 

Churches  Members  Pastors  Budget  Property 
1910  ....  1 16  14,631  108  $44,700  $116,000 

1920  ....  156  23,490  136  139, 5<*>  705>ooo 

The  curve  of  accessions  to  the  churches  was  1,000  in  1911-12, 
and  1,517  in  1921.  Doshisha  University  is  now  united  and  grow¬ 
ing  under  President  Ebina.  There  are  75  missionaries  cooperating 
with  the  Kumiai  Churches,  23  men  and  52  women.  The  Kumiai 
Churches  have  conducted  vigorous  missionary  work  among 
Koreans  and  more  recently  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  which  are 
under  Japanese  mandate.  The  work  in  Korea  was  started  in 
1910,  when  there  were  35  churches  and  1,758  members.  In  1920 
the  number  of  churches  had  increased  to  143  and  the  members 
to  14,951.  Among  the  sixty-five  pastors  only  four  are  Japanese. 
In  1922  the  Koreans  w'ere  given  self-government,  with  a  subsidy 
in  1921  of  $25,000  from  the  Japanese  churches. 

The  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Churches  and  Missions 

The  Nihon  Kirisuto  Kyokai  corresponds  to  the  Presbyterian 
and  Reformed  denominations  in  the  Occident.  Its  member¬ 
ship  and  336  ordained  clergy  are  characterized  by  steadfastness 
and  devotion.  Among  its  veteran  leaders  are  Dr.  Ibuka,  the 
administrator,  and  Pastors  Uemura  and  Tada.  Its  growth  dur¬ 
ing  the  decade  was  from  18,460  in  1910  to  31,673  in  1920.  It  has 
a  vigorous  home  mission  society  which  conducts  work  in  Man¬ 
churia,  North  China,  and  Formosa  as  well  as  in  Japan  proper. 
The  Fukuin  Shimpo,  a  weekly  founded  and  edited  by  Mr. 
Uemura,  supplies  spiritual  meat  to  readers  in  all  the  denominations. 
It  has  always  been  self-supporting.  A  five  year  Forward  Move¬ 
ment  is  now  in  progress,  and  is  especially  vigorous  in  the  North. 
One  layman  has  given  $5,000  toward  its  expenses.  There  are  224 
missionaries  cooperating  with  the  Church,  79  men  and  145  women. 


APPENDIX  I 


235 


The  Methodist  Church  and  Missions 

The  Japan  Methodist  Church  was  richly  blessed  in  its  first 
Bishop,  the  late  Dr.  Honda.  It  cost  a  hard  struggle  under 
Bishops  Honda  and  Hiraiwa  to  amalgamate  the  three  constituent 
denominations  into  a  living  unity  and  to  reduce  to  small  propor¬ 
tions  the  financial  dependence  on  the  mission  boards.  How 
successfully  these  difficulties  have  been  surmounted  is  seen  in 
the  splendid  “Forward  Movement”  which  has  been  in  progress 
for  two  years  under  the  leadership  of  Bishop  Usaki.  It  has 
already  attained  its  financial  goal  of  $300,000,  to  be  used  for 
evangelism,  ministerial  retirement,  church  building,  and  the 
education  of  ministers  and  their  children.  Steady  progress  has 
been  made  toward  doubling  the  membership  by  1923.  This  has 
been  in  good  measure  the  work  of  laymen,  whose  growing 
affluence  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  six  men  have  pledged 
$5,000  each  to  the  fund.  The  Church  membership  has  in¬ 
creased  from  13,135  in  1911  to  22,130  in  1920.  The  Methodist 
Colleges  at  Tokyo  and  Kobe  have  expanded  rapidly  since  1915. 
The  number  of  missionaries,  from  U.  S.  A.  and  Canada,  is  246, 
65  men  and  181  women. 

The  Anglican  Church  and  Missions 

The  Nippon  Sei  Ko  Kwai  [Anglican]  growth  has  been  as 
follows:  in  1910  ordained  Japanese  76,  members  15,314,  con¬ 
tributions  $17,800.  I11  1920  ordained  Japanese  145,  members 
28,267,  contributions  $70,800.  The  per  capita  annual  giving  rose 
from  $1.14  to  $3.61.  There  is  no  Japanese  Bishop  in  the  Sei 
Ko  Kwai  as  yet,  one  of  the  strongest  candidates,  the  scholarly 
Dr.  J.  T.  Imai,  having  passed  away  in  1919.  An  advance  in 
theological  education  was  made  in  1913  under  the  lead  of 
Bishop  Awdry,  by  combining  all  theological  education  under 
English  and  American  Episcopal  auspices  into  the  Central 
Theological  College  of  Tokyo.  From  1913  to  1919  this  college 
enjoyed  the  help  of  Father  Herbert  Kelly  of  Kelham.  St. 
Paul’s  University,  under  American  control,  has  developed  rapidly 
and  will  soon  realize  its  hopes  for  the  addition  of  a  medical 
department.  The  American  Episcopal  Mission  has  well- 
equippQd  hospitals  in  Tokyo  and  Osaka,  which  are  considered  a 


236 


APPENDIX  I 


valuable  phase  of  the  work.  There  are  199  missionaries  cooperat¬ 
ing  with  the  Sei  Ko  Kwai,  59  men  and  140  women. 

The  Baptist  Churches  and  Missions 

The  membership  in  45  churches  was  5,162  and  the  amount 
raised  by  them  in  the  year  was  $23,330.  There  were  259 
Japanese  employed  in  the  religious  and  educational  work,  137 
of  them  men  and  122  women.  The  missionary  force  numbered 
98,  of  whom  32  were  men  and  66  women,  connected  with  the 
American  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society  (69)  and  the  South¬ 
ern  Baptist  Convention  (29). 

One  of  the  noteworthy  churches  is  Misaki  Tabernacle  in 
Tokyo,  the  most  comprehensive  “institutional”  church  in  Japan. 
The  institutional  features  are  in  large  measure  financed  by  the 
Mission.  Among  the  activities  are:  day  and  evening  schools,  in¬ 
cluding  classes  for  apprentices,  day  nursery,  kindergarten,  work¬ 
ing  men’s  society,  clinic,  playground,  and  lectures;  also  daily 
preaching  and  other  religious  gatherings. 

Methodist  Protestant  Churches  and  Missions 

There  were  1,984  members  in  18  churches  which  raised 
$5,196;  1 18  Japanese  employed,  of  whom  81  were  men  and 
37  women.  The  missionary  force  numbered  3  men  and  12 
women.  The  boys’  school  at  Nagoya  is  nourishing. 

United  Brethren  Churches  and  Mission 

There  were  1,756  members  in  20  churches;  32  Japanese  em¬ 
ployed,  of  whom  18  were  men  and  14  women.  Missionary 
force:  4  men  and  3  women. 

United  Lutheran  Churceies  and  Missions 

There  were  eleven  churches  with  1,233  members;  43  Japanese 
men  and  9  women;  36  missionaries,  of  whom  16  were  men  and 
20  women.  Kyusiu  Gakuin,  their  boys’  high  school,  has  had  a 
u  rapid  and  substantial  development. 


APPENDIX  I 


237 


American  Christian  Convention  Churches  and  Mission 

There  were  1,557  members  in  14  churches;  $22,447  raised; 
Japanese  employed  23,  of  whom  14  were  men,  9  women;  mis¬ 
sionaries  4  men  and  5  women. 

United  Christian  Missionary  Society  Churches  and  Mission 

There  were  1,439  members  in  14  churches;  Japanese  employed 
120,  of  whom  72  were  men,  48  women;  missionaries  10  men  and 
23  women. 

Evangelical  Association  Churches  and  Mission 

There  were  1,456  members  in  11  churches;  $5,000  raised; 
Japanese  employed  87,  of  whom  36  were  men,  51  women;  mis¬ 
sionaries  3  men  and  13  women. 

Salvation  Army 

Although  the  Salvation  Army  is  not  nominally  a  church,  it 
functions  like  one,  and  sometimes  crosses  the  wires  of  the 
churches ;  but  it  is  prized  for  its  evangelistic  and  social  work. 
It  has  grown  even  more  rapidly  than  the  churches  during  the 
decade.  It  has  no  educational  work,  except  the  Officers’  Train¬ 
ing  School,  but  in  addition  to  street  preaching,  has  established 
fourteen  social  institutions  including  girls’  rescue  homes,  a 
hospital,  a  tuberculosis  sanitarium,  and  slum  stations.  The 
War  Cry  circulation  increased  from  216,000  in  1911  to  500,000 
in  1920.  The  self-denial  collection  which  is  pressed  with  much 
the  same  fearlessness  on  Tokyo  streets  as  in  London  or  New 
York  netted  $16,000  in  1920.  There  are  now  112  corps,  manned 
by  310  officers  and  cadets  and  850  local  officers.  Among  the 
officers  are  15  missionaries,  8  men  and  7  women.  The  moving 
spirit  in  the  Army  and  one  of  the  great  assets  in  the  Christian 
movement  in  Japan  is  Colonel  Yamamuro,  who  was  won  to 
Christ  while  studying  in  Doshisha  College.  The  Army’s  Counsel 
Bureau  has  deterred  many  despondent  persons  from  suicide. 


APPENDIX  I 


238 

I  Hit  mi)  rat  in  g  Quotatio  n  s 

It  has  been  just  fifty  years  since  the  first  Protestant  Church 
was  organized  in  Yokohama.  I  was  in  Yokohama  at  the  time, 
a  young  man,  not  a  charter  member,  but  I  was  among  the  first. 
I  have  just  been  thinking  of  how  the  church  has  grown.  It 
seems  to  me  nothing  less  than  a  miracle.  In  the  beginning  there 
were  only  eleven  young  men  studying  the  English  Bible  with 
the  missionaries.  They  were  finally  organized  into  the  first 
Christian  Church.  Soon  after,  the  famous  edict  banning 
Christianity  was  removed,  but  prejudice  was  still  strong  and 
persecution  was  general.  Dr.  Sato,  president  of  the  Imperial 
University  of  Hokkaido,  was  one  of  the  eleven.  He  wields  a 
strong  force  for  Christian  principles.  Now  it  is  the  usual  thing 
to  find  Christian  jurists,  editors,  army  and  navy  men,  govern¬ 
ment  officials,  and  business  men.  There  are  churches  and 
chapels  in  almost  every  town  and  large  village.  The  Japanese 
people  have  organized  churches  in  Manchuria,  in  Korea,  in 
China,  and  in  Singapore.  Probably  there  will  be  one  soon  in 
Hongkong.  That  the  gospel  is  spreading  in  outward  form  is 
evident.  It  is  not  only  growing  as  the  grain  of  mustard  seed 
grew,  it  is  growing  inwardly  as  the  leaven  leavened  the  whole 
lump.  Christianity  is  molding  the  thoughts  and  ideals  of  our 
people.  The  Japanese  language  is  changing  in  order  to  be  a 
suitable  vehicle  to  convey  Christian  ideas.  We  have  160,000 
members  on  the  rolls.  There  are  many  more  whom  we  may 
call  hidden  Christians.  Even  beyond  these  there  is  a  large 
number  of  people  who  are  friendly  to  Christianity.  Secretly 
they  are  in  accord  with  our  ideas.  The  great  present  task  of 
the  Japanese  Church  is  that  of  the  finding,  training  and  thrust¬ 
ing  forth  into  the  whitening  harvest  field,  capable,  efficient 
leaders. — Dr.  K.  Ibuka.  Extract  from  Address  of  Sept .  1922. 

The  prevailing  popular  conceptions  of  mankind,  humanity, 
labor,  etc.,  to  say  nothing  of  love  and  liberty,  are  all  traceable, 
directly  or  indirectly,  to  Christianity.  It  is  at  least  obvious 
that  they  have  come  neither  from  Confucianism  nor  from  Buddh¬ 
ism.  There  is  no  refuting  the  fact  that  Japan  is  learning 
and  adopting  Christian  ideas  and  ideals,  not  only  through  loyal 
Christians,  but  also  through  those  who  were  once  Christians, 
for  “backsliders/’  as  the  latter  may  be,  they  can  never  com- 


APPENDIX  I 


239 


pletely  shake  off  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  influences  to 
which  they  once  yielded.  Take,  for  instance,  such  sayings  as 
‘'man  does  not  live  by  bread  alone,”  “happier  is  it  to  give  than 
to  receive/’  “God  is  love,”  or  the  word  “gospel,”  which  are  on 
everybody’s  lips  nowadays. — K.  Uchimura,  What  Japan  Thinks, 
p.  214 

Hitherto  in  the  East  personality  has  received  very  little  em¬ 
phasis.  We  have  thought  in  terms  of  the  group.  Probably  most 
men  would  assert  that  personality  is  entirely  masculine.  Women, 
they  would  say,  have  none.  Their  place  in  our  economy  has 
been  entirely  derivative^  never  independent.  .  .  Christianity 
cuts  directly  across  this  idea,  laying  stress  upon  individual  re¬ 
sponsibility  and  freedom,  Christianity  has,  therefore,  given  us 
a  new  valuation  of  women. — Professor  Inazo  Nitobe.  Quoted 
in  The  Democratic  Movement  in  Ash,  p.  143. 

Dr.  Mott’s  intense  earnestness  and  the  fine  interpretation  of 
Mr.  Rinshiro  Ishikawa,  then  a  student  in  the  University,  stimu¬ 
lated  young  men  to  organize  branches  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  where- 
ever  the  speakers  went  (in  1901).  Dr.  Mott’s  work,  concen¬ 
trating  and  organizing  scattered  energies  and  supplying  to 
Christian  young  men  centers  for  every  kind  of  activity,  effected 
a  great  revolution,  by  means  of  which  the  present  development 
of  Christianity  among  the  young  has  been  pushed  forward. — 
Professor  Sakuzo  Yoshino.  Christian  Movement  in  Japan, 
1922,  p.  161. 

The  feeble-minded,  the  blind,  the  lepers,  the  slum-dwellers — 
these  were  formerly  the  sunken  classes,  to  be  noticed  only  to 
be  pushed  down  and  out.  Then  comes  a  Christian  priest  or 
scientist;  he  sees  the  need,  and  henceforth  devotes  his  life  to 
it.  Japan  looks  on;  wakes  up,  receives  an  inspiration,  and, 
presently,  a  whole  new  feature  begins  to  characterize  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  system  of  education  and  social  service.  The  tourist 
notes  this  and  says,  “How  wonderful  are  the  Japanese!  Why 
should  we  presume  to  send  missionaries  to  them?”  Yet  Japan 
owes  it  all  to  the  Church.  .  .  I  went  to  Japan  with  my  mind 
not  prepared  to  consider  the  kindergarten  system  seriously;  I 
came  away  convinced  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  agencies 
that  the  Church  has  in  Japan.  This  is  evidenced,  not  so  much 
by  the  effect  upon  the  children  themselves,  as  upon  their  elders. — 
William  C.  Sturgis.  From  Report  previously  quoted. 


240 


APPENDIX  I 


Chapter  VI 

Illu min ating  Q  no  ta  lio  ns 

Here  [in  Japan]  the  church  is  standing  at  the  parting  of 
the  ways.  Is  it  to  utter  the  prophetic  note  of  social  justice  for 
the  downtrodden  masses  or  “Keep  Out”  of  industry,  politics, 
and  moral  issues  and  become  the  comfortable  club  of  a  small, 
respectable  middle  class  of  privilege?  No  organization  has 
larger  access  or  greater  opportunity  for  moral  leadership  here 
than  the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  if  it  will  wisely 
press  its  advantage  at  once  for  a  great  spiritual  advance.  Now 
is  the  nick  of  time  for  the  New  Japan  which,  more  than  any 
other  nation,  may  dominate  the  destiny  of  Asia.  —  Sherwood 
Eddy.  Letter  of  Sept.,  1922. 

The  miracle  of  the  burning  bush  is  ever  re-enacted,  for  the 
Christian  Church  in  Japan  is  ever  sustained  by  the  prayer  life 
of  the  whole  body  of  Christ  throughout  the  world.  Every 
movement  of  thought  or  work  anywhere  in  the  Christian  Church 
is  sooner  or  later  reflected  in  the  Church  in  Japan,  and,  through 
the  little  group  of  Christians,  is  projected  into  the  life  of  the 
nation.  And  its  power  and  momentum  are  determined  by  the 
number  of  men  and  women  in  the  homelands,  as  well  as  in 
Japan,  who  are  ready  to  yield  themselves  to  the  operation  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  who  guides  and  presides  over  all.  The  com¬ 
munion  of  saints  is  a  living  reality. — Loretta  L.  Shaw,  Japan 
in  Transition. 

A  Church  able  to  maintain  itself  and  a  Church  competent  to 
give  Christianity  to  the  nation  are  two  different  things.  The 
fundamental  question,  therefore,  in  determining  future  mis¬ 
sionary  policy  is  whether  the  independent  Church,  which  is  now 
in  process  of  formation,  is  competent  to  carry  forward,  unaided, 
the  evangelization  of  Japan.  .  .  .  Above  all,  the  principle  that 
he  who  pays  the  piper  calls  the  tune,  must  be  laid  aside,  for 
the  very  purpose  of  this  policy  is  to  enable  Japanese  freedom 
and  initiative  to  operate  on  a  wider  scale. — Bishop  H.  St.  George 
Tucker.  Missionary  Problems  and  Policies ,  pp.  23,  25. 


APPENDIX  II 


Bibliography 
Chapter  I 

Clement,  Ernest  W.  A  Short  History  bf  Japan.  University 
of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago.  1915.  Concise  and  readable. 

$1.50. 

Clarke,  Joseph  I.  C.  Japan  at  First  Hand.  Dodd,  Mead,  and  Co., 
New  York.  1921.  Entertaining  and  appreciative  description 
of  the- people  and  institutions.  Not  scholarly.  $3.50. 

Gulick,  Sidney  L.  Evolution  of  the  Japanese ,  Social  and 
Psychic.  Fleming  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York.  1904.  Pene¬ 
trating  and  scholarly  analysis  of  Japanese  character  and  insti¬ 
tutions.  $2.00.  See  especially  chapters  5  to  24. 

Chamberlain,  B.  H.  Things  Japanese.  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons, 
New  York.  A  fascinating  miniature  encyclopedia  of  many 
subjects.  $6.00. 

Robertson- Scott,  J.  W.  Foundations  of  Japan.  D.  Appleton  and 
Co.,  New  York.  1922.  Unique  description  of  rural  Japanese 
life  and  thought.  $6.00.  See  especially  chapters  3,  5,  11, 
1 2,  36. 

Brinkley,  Frank.  “Japan.”  To  be  found  in  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica.  Comprehensive  and  authoritative. 

Dennett,  Tyler.  Americans  in  Eastern  Asia.  The  Macmillan  Co., 
New  York.  1922.  A  critical  study  of  the  policy  of  the  United 
States  with  reference  to  China,  Japan,  and  Korea  in  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century.  $5.00. 

Eckel,  Edwin  Clarence.  Coal ,  Iron  and  War.  Henry  Holt  and 
Co.,  New  York.  1920.  A  study  in  industrialism,  past  and 
future.  $3.00. 

Chapter  II 

Gleason,  George,  What  Shall  I  Think  of  Japan?  The  Macmillan 
Co.,  New  York.  1921.  A  fair  presentation  of  some  phases 
of  the  struggle  between  militarism  and  liberalism.  $2.25. 
See  especially  chapters  6,  10,  11,. 

Dennett,  Tyler.  The  Democratic  Movement  in  Asia.  The 
Association  Press,  New  York.  1918.  $2.00. 

241 


APPENDIX  II 


242 

Marcos  son,  Isaac  F.  The  Changing  East.  Three  articles  that 
appeared  in  the  Saturday  Evening  Post ,  June  24,  August  1 2, 
and  September  30,  1922.  A  capable  journalist’s  picture  of 
the  situation,  vivid  and  dependable  on  the  political  issues. 

Kawabe,  Kisaburo.  Press  and  Politics  in  Japan.  The  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago.  1921.  Valuable  for  re¬ 
flection  of  spirit  and  influence  of  the  press  and  of  the 
growth  of  public  opinion.  $2.00.  See  especially  chapters 
ii,  12. 

Iyenaga  and  Sato.  Japan  and  the  California  Problem.  G.  P. 
Putnam’s  Sons,  New  York.  1921.  A  dispassionate,  sug¬ 
gestive  treatment.  $2.50.  See  especially  chapters  6,  7,  8» 

“Present-Day  Immigration,  with  special  reference  to  the 
Japanese.”  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  January,  1921,  Part  I.  A  valuable 
symposium  by  American  and  Japanese  authorities. 

McLaren,  W.  W.  A  Political  History  of  Japan  During  the 
Meiji  Era.  A  thorough  and  interesting  presentation. 

Griffis,  William  Elliot.  The  Hope  of  Japan.  Envelope  Series. 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions, 
14  Beacon  Street,  Boston.  April,  1922.  Part  I  is  a  vivid, 
brief  sketch  of  trends  in  Japanese  political  and  moral  life. 
10  cents. 

Kawakami,  K.  K.  What  Japan  Thinks.  The  Macmillan  Co., 
New  York.  1921.  A  well  selected  series  of  articles  by 
representative  Japanese,  on  current  issues.  $2.00.  See  es¬ 
pecially  chapters  4,  5,  9,  12,  13. 

Chapter  III 

Christian  Movement  in  Japan ,  Korea  and  Formosa.  Committee 
of  Reference  and  Counsel,  25  Madison  Avenue,  New  York. 
1919,  Chapter  17;  1921,  Chapters  19,  21;  1922,  Chapter  19. 
This  annual  volume  is  the  best  source  on  social  and  re¬ 
ligious  conditions.  $2.00. 

Gulick,  Sidney  L.  Working  Women  of  Japan.  Missionary  Edu¬ 
cation  Movement.  191 5*  A  well-drawn  picture  which  is 
still  substantially  true  to  life.  50  cents.  See  especially 
chapter  9.  Order  through  your  denominational  board. 

Kagawa,  Toyohiko.  Crossing  the  Death-Line.  Japan  Chronicle, 


APPENDIX  II 


M3 

Kobe,  1922.  An  autobiographical  novel  by  a  Christian  social 
worker,  depicting  problems  and  possible  solutions.  3  yen. 

Hunt,  Frazier.  The  Rising  Temper  of  the  East.  Bobbs  -  Mer¬ 
rill  Co.,  Indianapolis.  1921.  Full  of  dramatic  touches  and 
human  interest.  $2.50.  See  especially  pp.  94-1 11  and  chapter  5. 

Katayama,  Sen.  The  Labor  Movement  in  Japan.  Charles  H. 
Kerr  and  Co.,  Chicago.  1918.  Written  by  a  leader  in  the 
early  stages  of  the  movement  when  official  opposition  was 
severe.  $1.00. 

uThe  Japanese  Labor  Movement.”  By  an  American  Sociologist. 
Japan  Chronicle,  1921. 

Gleason,  George.  What  Shall  I  Think  of  Japan ?  Already 
noted.  See  pp.  105-114. 

Godwin,  Frank.  “The  Rise  of  the  Japanese  Labor  Conscious¬ 
ness/’  The  Nation,  October  26,  1921. 

Chapter  IV 

Harada,  Tasuku.  The  Faith  of  Japan,  The  Macmillan  Com¬ 
pany,  New  York.  1914.  Describes  the  ideals  and  assump¬ 
tions  pervading  Japanese  thought  regardless  of  formal  re¬ 
ligious  affiliation.  Plartford-Samson  lectures  on  the  re¬ 
ligions  of  the  world.  $1.25. 

Christian  Movement  in  Japan ,  19 22.  Already  noted.  See  chapters 
6,  9,  10,  11. 

Soper,  Edmund  Davison.  The  Faiths  of  Mankind.  Association 
Press,  New  York.  1920.  Includes  a  brief  outline  of 
Japanese  religions.  60  cents. 

Reischauer,  August  K.  Studies  in  Japanese  Buddhism.  The 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York.  1917.  The  standard  work  on 
the  subject.  Rather  detailed  for  the  average  reader.  $2.00. 

Saunders,  Kenneth  J.  Buddhism  in  the  Modern  World. 
S.  P.  C.  K.,  London,  1922.  Pages  30-42,  54-56.  Concise, 
fresh,  appreciative  account  of  Buddhism  today.  3s. 

Lloyd,  Arthur  S.  The  Creed  of  Half  Japan.  E.  P.  Dutton 
&  Co.,  New  York.  1912.  Interesting  and  dependable  de¬ 
scription  of  Buddhism,  with  emphasis  on  points  of  contact 
with  Christianity.  $2.50. 

Anesaki,  Masaharu.  Social  and  Religious  Problems  of  the 
Orient.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York.  1923.  Earl  Lee- 


244 


APPENDIX  II 


tures.  Fresh  and  penetrating  discussions  by  an  authority 
on  oriental  religious  and  social  conditions.  $1.00 

Holtom,  D.  C.  The  Political  Philosophy  of  Modern  Shinto,  the 
State  Religion  of  Japan.  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society 
of  Japan.  Vol.  49,  Pt.  2.  1922.  5  yen. 

Hearn,  Lafcadio.  Japan;  An  Interpretation.  Grosset  and  Dun¬ 
lap.  1904.  An  able  exposition  of  the  family  and  ancestor- 
worship,  by  a  noted  writer  who  tends  to  idealize.  75  cents. 
See  chapters  2,  5,  8,  9,  14. 

Robertson- Scott,  J.  W.  Foundations  of  Japan .  Already  noted. 
Chapters  6,  7,  10,  23. 

Chapter  V 

Clement,  Ernest  Wilson.  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan. 
American  Baptist  Publication  Society,  Philadelphia.  In¬ 
forming,  popular  account,  up  to  1905. 

Fisher,  Galen  M.  “The  Missionary  Significance  of  the  Last 
Ten  Years  in  Japan.”  International  Review  of  Missions. 
April,  1922. 

Davis,  J.  D.  A  Maker  of  the  New  Japan.  Fleming  H.  Revell 
Co.,  New  York.  Life  of  the  great  pioneer,  Dr.  Neesima.  $1.00. 

Gleason,  George.  What  Shall  I  Think  of  Japan.  Already  noted- 
See  Chapter  12:  “Can  Japanese  be  Christians?” 

Christian  Movement  in  Japan ,  Korea,  and  Formosa.  Already 
noted.  See  1919:  Chapters  2,  4;  1922:  Chapters  2,  5. 

Shaw,  Loretta.  Japan  in  Transition.  George  H.  Doran  Co., 
New  York.  1923.  Well  written  accounts  of  Christian  work. 
$1.25.  See  Chapters  7,  8. 

Ishii,  Tokichi.  A  Gentleman  in  Prison.  George  H.  Doran  Co., 
New  York.  1922.  The  conversion  of  a  confessed  mur¬ 
derer,  simply,  but  movingly  told  by  himself.  $1.75. 

Cary,  Otis.  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan.  Fleming  H. 
Revell  Co.,  New  York.  1909.  2  volumes.  The  standard 

work;  detailed,  but  not  heavy.  $2.50. 

Griffis,  William  Elliot.  Verbeck  of  Japan.  Fleming  H. 
Revell  Co.,  New  York.  1900.  $1.50. 

De  Forest,  Charlotte  B.  The  Evolution  of  a  Missionary.  A 
biography  of  John  Hyde  De  Forest.  Fleming  H.  Revell  Co,, 
New  York.  1914. 


APPENDIX  II  245 

Harrington,  Charles  Kendall.  Captain  Bickel  of  the  Inland 
Sea .  Fleming  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York.  1919.  $1.75. 

Noss,  Christopher.  Tohoku,  the  Scotland  of  Japan.  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions,  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States, 
Fifteenth  and  Race  Streets,  Philadelphia.  1918,  50  cents. 

Chapter  VI 

Christian  Movement  in  Japan,  Korea,  and  Formosa.  Already 
noted.  Chapters  4,  5,  7,  14,  35,  36,  37. 

Tucker,  H.  St.  George.  Missionary  Problems  and  Policies  in 
Japan.  Department  of  Missions,  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  New  York.  1921.  A  masterly  discussion  by  an 
experienced  missionary  Bishop.  20  cents. 

Vories,  William  Merrell.  A  Mustard-Seed  in  Japan.  Omi 
Mission  publication.  1922.  A  thrilling  story  of  an  original 
mission  in  rural  Japan,  told  by  the  founder.  Can  be  pur¬ 
chased  through  Mrs.  W.  G.  Chapin,  436  Putnam  Avenue, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Cloth,  $1.00;  paper,  75  cents. 

The  Kingdom  of  God  in  Japan.  Report  of  the  Deputation  sent 
by  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  14  Beacon  Street,  Boston.  Most  of 
it  is  applicable  to  all  missions. 


INDEX 


Amida,  1 19-120. 

Anesaki,  Dr.  M.,  quoted,  126,  128- 
129,  130-131. 

Aoyama  Gakuin,  170. 

Arishima,  T.,  13 1. 

Art,  11-12. 

Association  of  Harmonious  Coopera¬ 
tion,  92. 

Ballagh,  Dr.  James  H.,  154,  155. 

Banzan,  4,  114.^ 

Berry,  Dr.  J.  C.,  147. 

Bickel,  Captain  Luke,  202,  2 io,  214- 
2x6. 

Brown,  Dr.  Nathan,  147. 

Brown,  Rev.  S.  R.,  147,  i54>  156. 

Buddhism,  2,  3,  4,  24,  88,  107,  108, 
1x6-126,  179-180. 

Bushido,  “The  Way  of  the  Knight,” 
115* 

“California  Question,”  the,  59-64. 

Children,  excursions  among  school, 
12-13;  effect  of  labor  conditions  on, 
75;  improvement  in  slum  condi¬ 
tions  of,  94*95- 

China,  Japan’s  differences  with,  56- 

58. 

Christianity,  30,  32,  87-88;  effects  of. 
on  social  problems,  95  ff. :  appeal 
of,  to  Young  Japan,  128  ff.;  Jap¬ 
anese  seekers  after,  1 33-141;  de¬ 
velopment  of,  in  Japan,  163  ff. ; 
problems  of,  178  ff.,  policies  and 
emphases  required,  180  ff. 

Christian  Literature  Society,  183, 

Christian  Movement  in  Japan,  the, 
42  ff.;  1 61  ff. ;  178  ff. ;  coming  of 
Christianity,  1 43-1 45;  beginning  of 
modern  Christian  Movement,  146 
ff.,  1 61  ff. ;  178  ff. ;  first  Protestant 
convert,  150;  the  Christian  Church 
in  Japan,  154-155.  I57‘i 59,  161- 

168;  founding  Christian  schools, 
159-161;  developing  Christian  lit¬ 
erature,  161,  174-175,  183;  growth 
of  Christian  churches,  1 61-168;  con¬ 
flict  between  Church  and  missions, 
162-163,  167-168,  1 92-1 93;  Sunday 
School  movement,  168-169;  devel¬ 
opment  of  Y.  M.  and  Y.  W.  C.  A., 
168-169;  Christian  education,  169 
ff-,  1 93- 1 95;  Christian  opportuni¬ 
ties  for  social  service,  176-177,  195 
ff. ;  sectarianism,  181  ff.;  work 
among  neglected  groups,  198-202; 
leavening  the  thought  of,  with 
Christianity,  202  ff. ;  issues  at  stake, 
2 : 8  ff. 

Christian  Movement  in  Japan ,  Korea , 
and  Formosa,  The,  183. 


Confucianism,  24,  32,  107,  108,  113- 
1 16. 

Criminals,  work  among,  212-214. 


Daishi,  Kobo,  3,  108,  122. 

Davis,  J.  Merle,  cited,  73,  95. 
Dennett,  Tyler,  cited,  8. 

Doshisha  University,  6,  36,  154,  159- 
161,  163,  170,  199. 

“Dual  Government,”  40-42. 


Eastern  Orthodox  Church  in  Japan, 
x  48. 

Ebina,  President,  cited,  125,  154. 
Education,  9-10,  12-13,  159-161,  169 

ff.,  193-195. 

Ensor,  Rev.  G.,  147. 

Eta,  need  for  work  among  the,  200. 


Farmers,  awakening  of  tenant,  85  ff. 
Fisher-folk,  need  for  work  among  the, 
201,  214-216. 

Forward  Movement  in  Japan,  164  ff. 


Goble,  Rev.  J.,  147. 
Greene,  Dr.  D.  C.,  147. 


Hachiman,  Omi  Mission  at,  189. 
Harris,  Bishop  M.  C.,  T48,  164. 
Hatanaka,  Rev.  H.,  186. 

Hatano,  T.,  97-98. 

Health,  conditions  unfavorable  to, 
23-25;  effects  of  industrialism  on, 
73  ff- 

Hepburn,  Dr.  James,  147,  154. 
Hirooka,  Madam,  135-137. 

Hirosaki  Band,  the,  154. 

Home  of  the  Resurrection  of  Hope, 
201. 

Honda,  Bishop  Yoitsu,  155. 

Hostels,  development  of,  176-177. 


Ibuka,  Dr,  K.,  155. 

Industrialism,  expansion  of,  66  ff. ; 
effect  of,  on  life  of  women,  68-75  1 
on  handcraft,  75;  on  slum  condi¬ 
tions,  76. 

Industrial  workers,  need  for  work 
among,  198. 

Janes,  Captain,  152-1^4. 

Japan,  religious  sentiment  in,  13-14, 
53,  107,  108,  163  ff. ;  pivotal  loca¬ 
tion  of,  25-27;  raw  materials  of, 
27-28;  wealth  of,  28-30;  govern¬ 
ment  in,  31  ff. ;  break  with  feudal¬ 
ism  and  isolation  of,  32-34;  strug¬ 
gle  between  political  liberalism  and 
reaction  in,  35-40;  “dual  govern¬ 
ment”  in,  40-42;  Christian  leaders 
in,  42-45:  democratic  advance  in, 
45  ff.;  reforms  in  Korea,  54-56,  57- 


INDEX 


59;  tlie  “California  Question,”  59- 
64;  industrial  expansion,  66  If.; 
labor  movement  in,  77  ff. ;  awaken¬ 
ing  of  the  tenant  farmers,  85  ft.; 
wise  leaders  needed  in,  86-88;  at¬ 
tempted  remedies  for  social  ills,  88 
ff. ;  religious  sects  in,  118-121,  126- 
128. 

Japanese,  the,  6-21;  mental  ability  of, 
7;  philosophical  ability  of,  8;  intel¬ 
lectual  capacity  of,  8;  imitative  and 
inventive  qualities  of,  8-9;  passion 
for  education  of,  9-10;  plasticity 
of,  10-11;  artistic  genius  of,  11-12; 
love  of  nature  of,  12-13;  emotional 
nature  of,  13-14;  moral  qualities 
of,  14-21;  loyalty  of,  15;  filial  piety 
of,  15-16;  propriety  of,  16-17;  de¬ 
pendability  of,  17-19;  self-confi¬ 
dence  of,  19-20;  cheerfulness  of, 
20-21;  energ;y  of,  21;  racial  stock 
of,  22;  physique  of,  22-23;  physical 
vigor  of,  23-25;  militarism  of,  31, 
37-40,  45 ;  in  California,  59-64; 
Christian  leaders  among  the,  95- 
106;  religious  tolerance  among,  108; 
religions  of,  109-126;  modern  sects 
among,  126-127;  prophets  and  guides 
of  young,  128-133;  seekers  after  God 
among,  133-141;  training  Christian 
leaders  among,  152-161,  184  if. 

Japanese  Evangelical  Alliance,  the, 
164. 

Japan  Evangelist ,  183. 

Japan  League  of  Nations  Associa¬ 
tion  43. 

Jugi,  lshii,  92. 

juvenile  delinquency,  75. 


Kagawa,  Rev.  T.,  88,  101-106,  128, 
195. 

Kaigan,  first  church  in  Japan,  154- 
155,  158-159. 

Kanamori,  Pastor  Paul,  138,  154,  166. 
Kataoka,  Kenkichi,  36. 

Katayama,  78. 

Kato,^ Admiral  Baron,  52,  132. 
Kawai,  Miss  Michi,  140-141,  169,  187. 
Keio  University,  173. 

Kimura,  Rev.  Seimatsu,  166. 
Kitasato,  Dr..  8. 

Kobayaslii,  Yataro,  196-198. 

Kobe,  Social  Settlement  work  in, 
101-105. 

Konkokyo,  religious  sect,  126. 

Korea,  reforms  in,  53-56;  dangers  of 
situation  in,  57-59. 

Kosaki,  Dr.,  154,  165. 

Kumagai,  Ryoun,  13  7- 140. 

Kumamoto  Band,  the,  152- 154. 
Kurihara,  Motoi,  187. 

Kwansei  Gakuin,  170. 

Kyoto,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  hostel  in,  177. 


Labor  movement,  the,^  77  ff. 
Leadership,  Japanese  Christian,  42-45,  , 


247 

59,  S6-88,  95  ff.,  152-161,  1S4,  185- 
187,  188-191,  192. 

Lepers,  need  for  work  among  the, 
201. 

Liberalism,  in  Japan,  35-40,  45  ff., 
.56  ff. 

Higgins,  Rev.  John,  147. 

Literature,  developing  Christian,  161, 
I74-I7S. 

Macdonald,  Miss,  141,  210,  212-214. 
Mikomoto,  Mr.,  195. 

Militarism,  31,  37*40,  45,  5L  S3- 
Mines,  condition  in  the,  71-72. 
Missionaries,  women,  158;  function 
of,  in  Japan  today,  204;  need  for 
more,  205-209;  new  emphases  and 
methods  called  for  among,  210;  as 
peacemakers,  216-217. 

Miyagawa,  165. 

Miyazaki,  Y.,  quoted,  12 9. 

Mori,  Viscount  Arinori,  9,  199. 
Morimura,  Baron,  134-13 5. 

Mott,  Dr.  John  R.,  164,  165. 

Myers,  Rev.  Dr.  H.  W.,  88,  102, 

Naide,  Dr.,  165. 

Nakatsu,  Chikayoshi,  98,  187. 

Naniwa  Church,  the,  159. 

National  Christian  Council,  182,  183, 
184. 

National  Factory  Law,  the,  89. 
Neesima,  Joseph  Hardy,  5-6,  36,  154, 
159-161,  163,  199. 

Negishi  Settlement,  197-198. 
“Newspaper  Evangelism/'  210-21 1. 
Nichiren,  3,  120,  121. 

Nicolai,  jFather,  148. 

Nilion  Kirisuto  Kyokai,  15 7. 

Nippon  Sei  Ko  Kwai,  154. 

Nishida,  Tenko,  129-131. 

Nitobe,  Dr.  1.,  cited,  140,  152. 

No  Dramas,  11-12. 

Nogi,  General,  5. 

Noguchi,  Dr.,  8. 

Northwestern  College  at  Sendei,  170- 
171. 

Ohara  Institute  for  Social  Research, 
92. 

Okuma,.  Marquis,  37,  38,  46,  162,  173. 
Omi  Mission,  189,  196-198. 
Omotokyo,  religious  sect,  127. 

“One  in  Seven  News,”  161. 

Ono,  Rev.  Z.,  187. 

Onodzuka,  Professor,  45. 

Ontakekyo,  religious  sect,  126-127. 
Osaka,  Working  Men’s  Club  in,  93; 
Labor  College  in,  106;  early  church 
in,  159. 

Osaka  Band,  the,  154. 

Oshikawa,  Bev.  M.,  155. 

Ozaki,  the  Hon.  Yukio,  43-44. 

Press,  rising  power  of  the.  49, 

Price,  Rev.  and  Mrs.  P.  G.,  196-1 98. 


INDEX 


248 


Riyu,  Yano,  150. 

Roman  Catholic  missions,  149. 
Ryobu-Shinto,  the  Two-fold  Way  of 
the  Gods,  122. 


Saito,  Soichi,  169,  187. 

Saito,  Takeshi,  187. 

Samurai,  5,  32,  66. 

Sapporo  Band,  the,  154. 

Sasao,  Dr.  K.,  186. 

Sawada,  Setsuzo,  187. 

Sawayama,  Paul,  159. 

Schneder,  Dr.,  170. 

Scriptures,  translation  of,  161,  210 
21 1. 

Shantung,  28,  37,  52-53- 
Shantung  Agreement,  the,  53. 

Shaw,  Archdeacon,  148. 

Shiga,  Mr.,  93. 

Shin  Sect,  3. 

Shinzon  Sect,  3. 

Shinkawa  slums,  the,  76. 

Shinran,  3,  120. 

Shinto,  24,  44,  107,  108,  109-113,  126, 
179-180. 

Simmons,  Rev.  D.  B.,  147. 

Slum  conditions,  76,  94-95. 

Socialism,  77  ff. 

Social  Settlements,  99  ff. 

Social  Welfare  Bureau  in  the  Impe 
rial  Department  of  Home  Affairs, 
92. 

Sturgis,  Dr.  William  C.,  cited,  201. 
Suffrage,  agitation  for  universal,  48. 
Sugiura,  Rev.  S.,  195. 

Sunday  School  Movement,  168-169. 
Suzuki,  Mr.,  88. 


Tagawa,  Hon.  D.,  43. 

Taiseikyo,  religious  sect,  126. 
Tenrikyo,  religious  sect,  126. 

Terman,  Lewis,  M.,  cited,  8,  60. 
Toju,  the  Sage  of  Omi,  3-4,  114. 
Tokugawa,  Prince,  33,  43. 

Tokyo  Imperial  University,  99,  112, 


i73,  175,  177- 

Tokyo  Women’s  Union  College, 
Tsunashirna,  R.,  128. 


^71- 


Tuberculosis,  22,  74,  93. 

Twenty-one  Demands,  the,  37. 

Tyng,  Dr.,  154. 

Uchimura,  Kanzo,  152,  166-167. 
Uemura,  Pastor,  155-158,  165,  199. 
Unemployment,  93-94. 

Union  Christian  Leper  Hospital,  20 r. 
United  Evangelistic  Campaign,  165. 
Usawa,  Dr.  F.,  187. 

Verbeck,  Dr.  Guido,  147,  150. 

Vories,  William  Merrell,  189-191. 

Wakasa,  150. 

Waseda  University,  173,  177. 

Warren,  Archdeacon,  154. 

Washington  Agreement,  the,  46,  51* 
53,  56. 

Watanabe,  T.,  95-97. 

Welfare  work  in  factories,  90-91. 
Williams,  Bishop,  C.  M.,  147,  154. 
Women,  effect  of  industrial  expan¬ 
sion  on,  68-72,  74-75. 

World’s  Student  Christian  Federa¬ 
tion  at  Tokyo,  Convention  of  the, 
165. 

World’s  Sunday  School  Convention 
in  Tokyo,  168. 

Yajima,  Madame,  171. 

Yamagata,  Prince,  41. 

Yamamoto,  K.,  133-134.^ 

Yamamuro,  Colonel,  166. 

Yanagihara,  Pastor,  187. 

Yasui,  Miss,  187. 

Yokohama,  first  church  in,  154-155, 

158-159. 

Yokohama  Band,  the,  154. 

Yoshino,  Dr.  S.,  43,  45,  187. 
Yosbiokn,  Dr.,  197. 

Young  Men’s  Buddhist  Association, 
1 22. 

Young  Men’s  Christian  Association, 
164,  168-169,  175,  1 77. _ 

Young  Women’s  Christian  Associa¬ 
tion,  168-169. 

Zen  Sect,  118,  119,  122. 


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